PROPHECY  AND 
THE    PROPHETS 

In  Their  Historical  Relations 


By 
FREDERICK    CARL  EISELEN 

Professor  in  Garrett  Biblical  Institute   Evanston,  Illinois 


THE  METHODIST  BOOK  CONCERN 
NEW  YORK        CINCINNATI 


Copyright,  1909,  by 
EATON  &  MAINS. 


First  Edition  Printed  September,  1909 

Reprinted  November,  1911;  December,  1913;  May,  1916 

January,  1919;  July,  1921 


CONTENTS 

Chaptbr  Paob 

Preface 5 

I.     Introductory.     The  Old   Testament  a  Library 

of   Books 9 

II.     The    Nature    and    Development     of     Hebrew 

Prophecy  18 

III.  Amos 35 

IV.  Hosea 52 

V.     Isaiah 73 

VI.     Micah 116 

VII.     Jeremiah 125 

VIII.     The  Contemporaries  of  Jeremiah 163 

IX.     Ezekiel 186 

X.     Isaiah,  Chapters  Forty  to  Sixty-six 222 

XI.     Haggai  and  Zechariah 246 

XII.     Malachi 272 

XIII.  Joel 286 

XIV.  Jonah  and  Daniel 293 

Review  Questions 314 

Index 329 


PREFACE 

The  past  few  years  have  seen  a  revival  of  interest  in 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures.  The  unique  place  occupied 
by  the  Bible  as  a  means  of  grace  throughout  the  entire 
history  of  the  Christian  Church  has  again  come  to  be 
recognized,  and  great  numbers  of  old  and  young  have 
taken  up  its  earnest,  devout,  and  systematic  study. 
This  study  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, for  Christians  are  learning  more  and  more  that, 
while  they  find  their  loftiest  inspiration  in  the  study  of 
the  life,  the  character,  and  the  teaching  of  the  Master 
and  of  his  disciples,  the  Old  Testament  has  not  been 
displaced  by  the  New.  The  early  Christians  were  right 
in  placing  the  Old  Testament  by  the  side  of  the  New, 
because  the  former  is  of  inestimable  value,  and  the 
earnest  student  soon  finds  that  every  part  of  the  book 
is  full  of  teaching  that  is  of  practical  value  even  in  the 
twentieth  century  A.  D. 

In  this  age,  when  the  responsibility  of  the  individual 
Christian  and  of  the  Christian  Church  toward  the 
practical,  social,  religious,  and  moral  problems  and 
evils  is  recognized  more  than  at  any  previous 
time,  the  prophetic  literature  is  worthy  of  the  most 
careful  study  on  the  part  of  all  Christians  who  recog- 
nize their  obligations  to  their  day  and  generation 
and  are  willing  to  meet  them.  The  prophets  of  old 
met  in  the  strength  of  God,  and  at  the  divine  im- 
pulse, the  problems  and  evils  of  their  day  and  genera- 

s 


6  PREFACE 

tion.  They  had  to  face  the  problems  arising  from  the 
spirit  of  materiaHsm  and  commerciaUsm,  the  evils 
resulting  from  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  power,  and 
resources  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  the  cruelty  and  arro- 
gance of  the  rich  proprietors,  and  corruption  both  in 
government  and  in  the  administration  of  justice.  They 
had  to  grapple  with  a  cold,  heartless  formalism,  that 
threatened  to  destroy  pure,  spiritual  religion.  Against 
these  and  similar  evils  and  wrongs  the  prophets  of  old 
raised  their  hands  and  voices.  The  truths  proclaimed 
then  are  the  truths  needed  to-day.  Surely  it  is  a  part 
of  our  duty  as  Christians,  as  American  citizens,  to  do 
our  share  toward  a  Christian  solution  of  the  social  and 
religious  problems  of  our  age.  We  can  hardly  claim 
to  have  reached  the  full  stature  of  Christian  manhood 
and  womanhood  until  we  have  acquired  the  knowledge 
and  power  to  cope  with  these  difficulties  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Master  and  with  the  methods  best  adapted  to  the 
Christianizing  of  modem  society.  In  these  our  efforts 
to  lift  humanity  nearer  to  God  we  may  learn  much 
from  the  prophets  of  old. 

The  book  now  sent  forth  is  intended  to  be  an  aid 
toward  a  better  appreciation  of  the  prophetic  books 
and  the  prophetic  teaching.  Its  study  is  in  no  sense 
to  take  the  place  of  a  study  of  the  biblical  books 
themselves;  it  is  rather  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to 
these  books  and  a  guide  to  lead  to  the  more  impor- 
tant truths  taught  by  the  prophets.  In  preparing  the 
book  the  author  has  had  in  mind  especially  adult  Bible 
classes  in  the  Sunday  school  or  young  people's  organiza- 
tions. However,  it  may  be  useful  also  as  a  basis  of 
study  in  college  and  seminary  classes  studying  the  Old 
Testament  in  English,  and  to  individiml  readers  and 


PREFACE  7 

students  who  desire  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  per- 
manent lessons  taught  in  the  prophetic  books. 

At  the  close  of  the  book  the  author  has  added  nu- 
merous Review  Questions  covering  each  chapter, 
which,  he  trusts,  may  be  of  assistance  to  teachers  and 
students.  At  first  he  planned  to  suggest  also  topics 
for  further  investigation,  but  he  desisted,  thinking 
that  it  would  be  more  profitable  to  concentrate  the 
study  upon  the  topics  covered  in  the  text  and  such  spe- 
cial investigations  as  might  naturally  arise  from  the 
discussion  in  class. 

It  is  not  possible  to  discuss  in  one  small  volume  all 
the  questions,  critical  or  otherwise,  which  present 
themselves  to  the  student  of  Hebrew  prophecy.  There- 
fore, for  the  benefit  of  any,  especially  of  the  leaders  of 
Bible  classes,  who  may  desire  to  pursue  a  more  exhaust- 
ive study  of  the  prophetic  writings,  th6  following  are 
suggested  as  books  adapted  to  the  needs  of  students  of 
the  English  Bible: 


L.  W.  Batten,  The  Hebrew  Prophet.     The  Macmillan  Co., 

New  York,  1905. 
A.  F.  Kirkpatrick,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets.    Macmillan 

&  Co.,  London,   1897. 
C.  F.  Kent,  The  Kings  and  Prophets  of  Israel  and  Judah 

(Historical   Bible,   III).     Charles  Scribner's  Sons,   New 

York,  1909. 
John  Skinner,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah  (Cambridge 

Bible).     2  vols.    The  University  Press,  Cambridge,  1900. 
O.  C.  Whitehouse,  Isaiah  (New  (Century  Bible).    2  vols.    Henry 

Frowde,  New  York,  1905. 
G.  A.  Smith,  The  Book  of  Isaiah  (Expositor's  Bible).    2  vols. 

A.  C.  Armstrong  &  Son,  New  York,  1890. 
S.  R.  Driver,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah.     Charl^ 

Scj:ibp^'§  §oo§.  New  York,  190^, 


8  PREFACE 

C.  R.  Brown,  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah.    American 

Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia,  1907. 
A.  B.  Davidson,  The  Book  of  Ezekiel  (Cambridge  Bible).    The 

University  Press,  Cambridge,  1893. 
W.    F.    Lofthouse,    Ezekiel    (New   Century    Bible).      Henry 

Frowde,  New  York. 
S.  R.  Driver,  The  Book  of  Daniel  (Cambridge  Bible).     The 

University  Press,  Cambridge,  1900. 
C  M.  Cobem,  Ezekiel  and  Daniel   (Whedon  Commentary). 

Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  1901. 

F.  C.  Eiselen,  The  Minor  Prophets  (Whedon  Commentary). 

Eaton  &  Mains,  New  York,  1907. 
S.  R.  Driver  and  R.  F.  Horton,  The  Minor  Prophets  (New  Cen- 
tury Bible).     2  vols.     Henry  Frowde,  New  York,  1906. 

G.  A.  Smith,  The  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets  (Expositor's 

Bible).    2  vols.     A.  C.  Armstrong  &  Son,    New  York, 
1896-98. 

Frederick  Carl  Eiselen. 

Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evanston,  111. 


CHAPTER  I.     INTRODUCTORY 

THE   OLD   TESTAMENT    A   LIBRARY   OF 
BOOKS 

CONTENTS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

What  is  the  Bible?  The  Bible  may  be  described 
as  a  collection  of  books  written  during  a  period  of  more 
than  a  thousand  years,  in  which  men  moved  by  the 
Divine  Spirit  have  recorded  and  preserved  their  con- 
ceptions and  interpretations  of  God's  revelations  of 
himself,  his  will  and  redemptive  purpose  for  the  hu- 
man race.  The  word  Bible  is  derived  from  the  Greek. 
It  is  the  plural  of  a  noun  hihlion,  which  means  little 
hook.  In  the  Latin  this  plural  came  to  be  regarded  as 
a  singular,  biblia,  meaning  book.  This  singular  noun 
was  early  adopted  into  the  language  of  the  Western 
Church,  and  it  is  used  as  such  even  now  in  the  languages 
of  modem  Europe.  But  the  Bible  can  never  be  rightly 
appreciated  unless  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  so 
much  one  book  as  a  library  consisting  of  many  books. 
Altogether  there  are  sixty-six  separate  writings  in  the 
collection  as  found  in  the  English  translations  with 
which  we  are  most  familiar.  Of  these,  twenty-seven 
belong  to  the  New  Testament,  the  remaining  thirty- 
nine  to  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Books  contained  in  the  English  Old  Testament. 
The  Old  Testament  is  that  portion  of  the  Bible  which 
originated,  in  the  manner  suggested,  among  the  He- 
brews during  the  period  preceding  the  perfect  revelation 


lo       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  God  in  Jesus  the  Christ,  and  which  was  taken  over 
from  the  Jews  by  the  Christians.  The  thirty-nine 
books  are  usually  grouped  as  follows: 

I.  Law:     Genesis,    Exodus,    Leviticus,    Numbers, 

Deuteronomy S  books 

II.  History:  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  First  and 
Second  Samuel,  First  and  Second  Kings, 
First  and  Second  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  Esther 12  books 

III.  Poetry:     Job,    Psalms,    Proverbs,    Ecclesiastes, 

Song  of  Songs 5  books 

IV.  Prophecy:    (i)    The    Major    Prophets:     Isaiah, 

Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  Daniel. . .     5  books 
(2)  The  Minor  Prophets:    Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi. ...    12  books 

Total 39  books 

Differences  between  the  English  and  Hebrew  Old 
Testaments.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  portions 
which  are  in  Aramaic  these  books  were  written  originally 
in  the  Hebrew  language,  from  which  the  modem  Eng- 
lish translations  have  been  made.  But  when  compared 
with  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  English  Old  Testament  is 
found  to  show  differences  in  the  arrangement  and  the 
total  number  of  books.  In  these  two  points,  as  also  in 
the  names  of  the  books,  the  English  Bible  follows  the 
Latin  translation  of  Jerome,  called  Vulgate,  which 
served  as  the  basis  of  the  early  English  translations. 
The  Vulgate,  in  turn,  is  dependent  in  these  things  upon 
the  early  Greek  translation  called  Septuagint,  made 
from  the  Hebrew  during  the  last  three  pre-Christian 
centuries. 

Contents  oi  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament*    The  He- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  A  LIBRARY  ii 

brew  Bible  contains  all  the  books  enumerated  above, 
but  as  a  result  of  various  combinations  the  total  number 
is  much  smaller.  The  common  editions  contain  twenty- 
four  books;  some  ancient  traditions  speak  of  twenty- 
two,  which  is  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet;  others,  of  twenty-seven.  The  twenty-four 
books  are  arranged  in  three  divisions: 

L  Law:  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy  (the  names  given  here  are 
those  found  in  the  English  Bible,  not  those 

given  to  the  books  by  the  Jews) 5  books 

IL  Prophets:  (i)  The  former  prophets,  or,  the  first 
volume  of  prophets:  Joshua,  Judges,  Sam- 
uel, Kings 4  books 

(2)  The  latter  prophets,  or,  the  second  volume 
of  prophets:  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  The 

Twelve  (Minor  Prophets) 4  books 

III.  Writings:  Commonly  called  Hagiographa,  that 
is.  Sacred  Writings:  Ruth,  Psalms,  Job, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Songs, 
Lamentations,  Daniel,  Esther,  Ezra,  Chron- 
icles     II  books 

Total 24  books 

Growth  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon.  The  three 
divisions  mark,  in  all  probability,  three  stages  in  the 
formation  of  the  Old  Testament  canon.  At  first  the 
Law  was  canonized,  during  the  closing  years  of  the 
fifth  century  B.  C,  then  the  Prophets,  between  about 
250  and  200  B.  C,  and  finally  the  Writings,  before  the 
opening  of  the  Christian  era. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  LITERATURE  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

"In  Divers  Portions."  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  says  that  during  the  Old  Testament  djs- 


12      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

pensation  God  spake  "in  divers  portions  and  in  divers 
manners."  The  former  expression  means  that  the 
revelations  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  were  not 
given  at  one  time,  through  one  channel,  or  by  one  man, 
but  at  many  times,  through  many  channels,  and  by 
many  men,  scattered  over  a  period  of  many  centuries, 
in  places  hundreds  of  miles  apart.  One  result  of  this  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  the  Old  Testament  contains  many 
books  written  by  many  different  authors  in  different 
periods  of  Hebrew  history. 

"In  Divers  Manners."  The  expression  "in  divers 
manners"  touches  upon  the  different  kinds  of  literature 
found  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  it  goes  deeper  than 
mere  literary  form.  It  means  that,  in  giving  revelations 
of  himself  during  the  Old  Testament  period,  God  used 
various  methods  and  means;  the  different  kinds  of 
literature  being  simply  the  outgrowth  of  the  various 
modes  of  revelation.  It  is  a  universal  Christian  belief 
that  God  reveals  himself  to-day  in  divers  manners  and 
modes.  Every  Christian  believes,  for  example,  that 
God  reveals  himself  in  the  events  of  history,  be  it  the 
history  of  individuals  or  of  nations.  Sometimes  the 
voice  may  be  almost  inaudible,  at  other  times  it  sounds 
like  the  roar  of  thunder.  Again,  to  many  devout  per- 
sons, God  speaks  very  distinctly  through  the  outward 
acts  of  worship.  To  thousands  of  earnest  and  sincere 
Christians  connected  with  churches  using  an  elaborate 
ritual  this  ritual  is  not  mere  form,  it  is  a  means  of 
blessing  and  grace  through  which  God  reveals  himself 
to  their  souls.  Moreover,  God  selects  certain  persons, 
especially  well  qualified  to  hear  his  voice;  these  he 
commissions  as  ambassadors  to  declare  him  and  his 
will  to  the  people.    The  belief  in  this  method  of  re  vela- 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  A  LIBRARY  13 

tion  is  the  philosophical  basis  for  the  offices  of  the 
Christian  preacher  and  Christian  religious  teacher. 
The  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the  former  ap- 
peals primarily  to  the  conscience,  the  latter  to  the  in- 
tellect, and  then  by  way  of  the  intellect  to  the  conscience. 
Once  more,  in  his  attempt  to  reach  the  human  heart 
God  may  dispense  with  all  external  means ;  he  may  and 
does  reveal  himself  by  working  directly  upon  the  mind 
and  spirit  of  the  individual. 

God's  Revelations  during  the  Old  Testament  Period. 
These  are  some  of  the  "manners"  in  which  God  re- 
veals himself  to  his  children  to-day,  and  these  are  some 
of  the  means  and  manners  in  which  God  made  himself 
known  during  the  Old  Testament  dispensation.  Then, 
as  now,  he  revealed  himself  in  nature,  in  the  events 
of  history,  in  the  ritual,  and  by  direct  impressions; 
then,  as  now,  he  selected  certain  individuals  to  whom 
he  might  make  himself  known  in  all  these  various  ways, 
and  who  could  transmit  the  revelations  to  others.  The 
Old  Testament  contains  records  and  interpretations  of 
these  manifold  revelations. 

The  Human  Agents  who  Assisted  God  during  the 
Old  Testament  Period.  We  are  informed  by  the  book 
itself  who  were  the  principal  agents  to  mediate,  inter- 
pret, or  record  the  revelations  granted  to  the  chosen 
people  or  to  individuals  during  the  period  preceding 
the  fullness  of  time  when  God  might  grant  a  revelation, 
complete  and  universal,  in  and  through  his  Son.  In 
Jer.  18.  18,  part  of  which  reads,  "For  the  law  shall  not 
perish  from  the  priest,  nor  counsel  from  the  wise,  nor 
the  word  from  the  prophet,"  three  of  these  agents  are 
mentioned,  the  prophets,  the  priests,  and  the  wise  men. 
To  these  should  be  added  the  sweet  singers,  the  psalmists 


14      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  Israel,  These  four  classes  of  agents  observed  th( 
various  manifestations  of  God,  interpreted  them,  anc 
recorded  them  in  various  kinds  of  literature. 

(i)  The  Prophetic  Literature.  The  most  impor- 
tant part  of  Old  Testament  literature  is  due  to  propheti< 
activity.  The  prophets,  pure  in  character,  strong  ir 
intellect,  sincere  in  purpose,  quickened  through  per- 
sonal communion  with  God,  enlightened  by  the  Divine 
Spirit,  were  able  to  see  facts  and  understand  truths 
hidden  from  the  eyes  of  those  who  did  not  live  in  the 
same  intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah.  These  men, 
possessed  of  divine  ideals  of  righteousness,  and  eagei 
to  realize  those  ideals  in  their  nation,  became  states- 
men, social  reformers,  and  religious  and  ethical  teachers. 
They,  with  flaming  enthusiasm,  sought  to  impress  the 
truths  burned  by  a  Divine  Spirit  upon  their  hearts  and 
minds  upon  their  less  enlightened  contemporaries. 

With  the  gradual  advance  in  culture,  reading  and 
writing  became  quite  universal;  then  the  prophets, 
anxious  to  appeal  to  a  larger  circle  and  to  preserve  theii 
messages  for  more  willing  ears,  put  their  utterances  in 
writing,  and  to  this  new  departure  we  owe  the  sublime 
specimens  of  prophetic  literature  in  the  Old  Testament. 

(2)  The  "Wisdom  Literature.  As  the  prophets  re- 
semble the  modem  preacher,  so  the  wise  men  resemble 
the  modem  religious  teacher.  Both  classes  of  ancient 
workers  consisted  of  men  who  were  qualified  to  under- 
stand the  divine  will  and  purpose  and  to  make  it 
known  to  others.  But  the  wise  men  did  not  appeal 
directly  to  the  conscience  as  did  the  prophets,  but  rather 
to  the  mind  through  counsel  and  argument,  though 
their  ultimate  aim  was  to  reach  the  conscience  and 
through  it  influence  conduct  and  life.     The  prophet 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  A  LIBRARY  15 

ordinarily  supported  his  exhortation  by  appeal  to  the 
divine  authority.  He  would  have  said  to  the  indolent 
man,  "Thus  saith  Jehovah,  Go  to  work,  thou  sluggard." 
Not  so  the  wise  man  In  a  simple  manner  he  appealed 
to  the  ordinary  commor.  sense,  trusting  that  in  this 
wise  he  would  make  an  impression  the  effects  of  which 
would  be  seen  in  transformed  conduct.  The  following 
verses  (Prov.  24.  30-34)  may  serve  as  an  illustration: 

I  went  by  the  field  of  the  sluggard, 

And  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understanding; 

And,  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns, 

The  face  thereof  was  covered  with  nettles, 

And  the  stone  wall  thereof  was  broken  down. 

Then  I  beheld,  and  considered  well; 

I  saw,  and  received  instruction: 

Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 

A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep ; 

So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber, 

And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man. 

Nothing  escaped  the  observation  of  these  men;  and 
from  beginning  to  end  they  emphasized  the  impor- 
tant truth  that  religion  and  the  daily  life  are  insepara- 
ble. From  the  giving  of  simple  practical  precepts  they 
rose  to  speculation,  and  the  Books  of  Job  and  Eccle- 
siastes  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  the  problems  they 
attempted  to  solve  were  no  mean  problems. 

(3)  The  Devotional  Literature.  Of  profound  signifi- 
cance is  also  the  devotional  literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  illustrated,  for  example,  in  the  Psalter,  which 
is  characterized  most  fittingly  in  the  words  of  Johannes 
Amdt,  "What  the  heart  is  in  man,  that  is  the  Psalter 
in  the  Bible."  The  devotional  literature  embodies 
the  expressions  of  devout  souls,  prophets,  priests,  wise 


i6       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

men,  kings,  and  peasants,  who  came  into  the  very 
presence  of  God,  held  communion  with  him,  and  were 
privileged  to  hear  the  sweet  sound  of  his  voice. 

(4)  The  Priestly  Literature.  The  priests  consti- 
tute another  important  class  of  religious  workers  in 
ancient  Israel.  During  the  earliest  period  their  prin- 
cipal duty  appears  to  have  been  the  giving  of  oracle  or 
law,  but  in  time  the  care  of  the  sanctuary  with  all  that 
was  involved  in  this  passed  into  their  hands,  and  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  national  life  of  the  Hebrews 
their  chief  functions  were  the  care  of  the  sanctuary 
and  the  performance  of  the  ceremonial  rites ;  yet  during 
all  this  time  they  remained  the  custodians  of  the  sacred 
law  and  custom.  For  centuries  these  laws  and  customs 
were  probably  transmitted  by  word  of  mouth,  or  were 
only  partially  committed  to  writing;  but  at  last  there 
came  a  time  when  convenience  and  existing  conditions 
demanded  that  they  be  codified  and  put  into  writing; 
and  naturally  the  priests,  the  guardians  of  sacred  law 
and  custom,  were  called  upon  to  perform  this  task. 
To  this  class  of  religious  workers,  then,  we  may  trace 
the  legal  and  ceremonial  literature.  In  it  they  sought 
to  interpret  the  divine  revelations  given  by  means  of 
precept,  commandment,  and  the  object  lessons  of  the 
ritual  and  ceremonial. 

(5)  The  Historical  Literature  Due  to  Prophetic 
Activity.  The  historical  literature  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment furnishes  an  interpretation  of  the  movements 
of  God  in  history.  The  prophet  was  a  preacher  of 
righteousness  to  his  day  and  generation,  but  his  activity 
was  not  confined  to  the  present.  He  was  the  ambassa- 
dor of  Jehovah  to  make  known  his  will  concerning  the 
past,  the  present,  or  the  future.     Addressing  himself 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  A  LIBRARY  17 

to  the  present  he  spoke  as  a  preacher ;  when  the  mes- 
sage concerned  the  future  it  took  the  form  of  prediction. 
The  case  might  arise,  however,  that  the  people  failed 
to  understand  the  significance  of  their  own  past  his- 
tory, and  thus  failed  to  receive  the  proper  conception 
of  their  God  and  his  will.  If  the  lesson  was  not  to  be 
lost  some  one  must  serve  as  an  interpreter,  and  who 
would  be  better  qualified  to  give  the  right  interpretation 
than  the  prophet?  Sometimes  he  embodied  such  in- 
terpretations in  his  discourses,  but  on  a  larger  scale 
this  demand  made  of  him  an  historian,  not  for  the  pur- 
pose of  merely  recording  events,-  but  of  interpreting 
them  at  the  same  time.  To  these  prophet-historians 
we  owe  a  large  portion  of  the  historical  literature. 

The  Historical  Literature  Due  to  Priestly  Activity. 
But  not  all  Old  Testament  history  comes  from  the 
prophets.  As  already  indicated,  the  legal  and  cere- 
monial literature  may  be  traced  to  priestly  activity. 
Now,  in  connection  with  the  recording  of  the  laws, 
customs,  institutions,  and  ceremonial  requirements,  the 
origin  of  these  laws  and  institutions  became  a  matter 
of  interest  and  importance.  This  interest  and  the  de- 
mand for  information  arising  from  it  led  the  priests 
also  to  become  historians ;  and  to  these  priestly  writers 
we  are  indebted  for  not  a  small  part  of  sacred  history. 


CHAPTER  11 

THE   NATURE  AND   DEVELOPMENT  OF 
HEBREW   PROPHECY 

Hebrew  prophecy  has  a  history.  There  were  a  period 
of  obscure  beginnings,  a  period  of  growth  and  lofty 
achievement,  and  a  period  of  decHne  and  expiration, 
when  other  agencies  took  the  place  of  living  prophecy. 

THE  BASIS  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY 

Man  a  Religious  Being.  Prophecy  is  not  peculiar 
to  the  Hebrews.  A  phenomenon  to  which  the  general 
term  "prophecy"  may  be  given  existed  among  all  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  and  is  found  to-day  even  among  very 
primitive  peoples.  The  ultimate  basis  of  prophecy  is  to 
be  found  in  the  religious  nature  of  man,  which  causes 
him  to  reach  out  toward  some  kind  of  a  divine  being. 
Men  everywhere  and  in  all  ages  have  given  evidence 
of  the  possession  of  certain  leligious  beliefs  or  feelings 
more  or  less  clearly  defined,  which  would  inevitably 
lead  to  the  institution  of  some  sort  of  prophetic  order 
among  them. 

Universal  Religious  Beliefs  Underlying  the  Phenom- 
enon of  Prophecy,  i.  Man  is  surrounded  by  mys- 
terious divine  powers.  In  the  course  of  time  these 
various  powers  may  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  mani- 
festations of  one  single  power,  which  may  or  may  not 
be  conceived  as  possessing  the  attributes  of  personality. 
2.  This  power,  or  these  powers,  determine  the  well- 
being  and  destiny  of  men.    3.  If  this  is  true,  it  becomes 

18 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY      19 

a  matter  of  vital  concern  that  men  secure  the  good  will 
and  favor  of  these  deities ;  but  in  order  to  do  this  men 
must  know  the  divine  will  and  purpose;  this  in  turn 
makes  it  necessary  for  the  deities  in  some  way  to  make 
known  their  purpose  and  will.  As  a  result  we  find  every- 
where a  belief  that  the  divine  power,  or  powers,  seek 
to  communicate  their  will  to  men.  4.  Alongside  of  this 
is  found  the  belief  that  the  deity  does  not  give  his  com- 
munications indiscriminately ;  he  reveals  himself  to  cer- 
tain peculiarly  qualified  individuals,  who  might  transmit 
the  revelations  to  the  people  in  general.  These  favorite 
persons  occupy  much  the  same  place  among  other 
nations  as  do  the  prophets  among  the  Hebrews.  When- 
ever it  became  desirable  to  know  the  will  of  the  deity, 
men  would  go  to  these  specially  favored  persons  for 
counsel,  either  to  have  them  determine  the  divine  will 
or  to  have  them  interpret  the  meaning  of  some  phenome- 
non or  happening  which  the  inquirer  had  experienced, 
and  which  he  thought  contained  a  message  from  the 
deity. 

Primitive  Methods  of  Determining  the  Will  of  the 
Deity.  The  question  arises  here,  how  were  these 
''prophets"  thought  to  discover  the  will  of  their  deity 
or  deities  ?  Generally  speaking,  in  two  ways :  i .  The 
external  method;  2.  The  internal  method.  In  the  ex- 
ternal method  two  phases  may  be  distinguished:  (i) 
Passive  observation  of  external  phenomena;  (2)  The 
use  of  definite  means  to  discover  the  divine  will. 

Passive  Observation  of  External  Phenomena.  In 
this  case  the  prophet  put  forth  no  special  effort  to  de- 
termine the  will  of  the  deity;  he  simply  observed 
passively  certain  phenomena,  as,  for  example,  the  flight 
or  cry  of  the  birds,  the  movements  of  the  clouds,  the 


20       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

conjunction  of  the  stars,  the  formation  of  the  members 
of  sacrificial  animals,  the  convulsive  movement?  of  the 
liver  or  entrails,  the  rustling  of  the  leaves,  and  many 
more.  Thousands  of  tablets  have  been  unearthed  in  the 
ruins  of  the  library  of  King  Ashurbanapal  of  Assyria, 
which  contain  interpretations  of  this  kind.  As  an 
illustration  of  their  character,  a  few  lines  may  be 
quoted : 

If  a  woman  gives  birth  to  a  child  with  the  right  ear  missing, 

the  days  of  the  rviler  will  be  long ; 
If  a  woman  gives  birth  to  a  child  with  the  left  ear  missing, 

distress  will  enter  the  land  and  weaken  it. 

This  method  is  also  reflected  in  2  Sam.  5.  24:  "And 
it  shall  be,  when  thou  hearest  the  sound  of  marching  in 
the  tops  of  the  mulberry  trees,  that  then  thou  shalt 
bestir  thyself;  for  then  is  Jehovah  gone  out  before 
thee  to  smite  the  host  of  the  Philistines."  The  rustling 
of  the  mulberry  leaves  was  thought  to  indicate  the  will 
of  Jehovah. 

Various  Efforts  to  Determine  the  Will  of  the  Deity. 
There  were  cases,  however,  when  passive  observation 
was  thought  insufficient;  when  it  was  considered 
necessary  to  put  forth  definite  efforts  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  will  of  the  deity.  The  Old  Testament 
contains  serveral  references  to  this  method  of  procedure. 
The  cup  of  divination  (Gen.  44.  5,  15)  must  have  been 
used  in  this  connection.  The  most  common  method, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  the  casting  of  the  lot, 
ordinarily  in  the  form  of  headless  arrows  or  rods.  The 
question  was  put  in  a  form  which  made  possible  the 
simple  answer  "yes"  or  "no,"  "this"  or  "that."  The 
casting  of  the  lot  in  the  case  of  Jonah  is  an  illustration  of 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  21 

this  method,  as  also  in  the  case  of  the  election  of  a  suc- 
cessor to  Judas.  Ezek.  21.  21,  22  describes  the  use  of  the 
same  method:  "For  the  king  oi  Babylon  stood  at  the 
parting  of  the  way,  at  the  head  of  the  two  ways,  to  use 
divination:  he  shook  the  an'ows  to  and  fro,  he  con- 
sulted the  teraphim,  he  looked  in  the  liver.  In  his 
right  hand  was  the  divination  for  Jerusalem,  to  set 
battering-rams,  to  open  the  mouth  in  the  slaughter,  to 
lift  up  the  voice  with  shouting,  to  set  battering-rams 
against  the  gates,  to  cast  up  mounds,  to  build  forts."  It 
is  seen  that  in  some  passages  the  Old  Testament  favors 
the  use  of  these  primitive  methods;  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  passages  which  condemn  their  use  very  em- 
phatically, for  example.  Lev.  19.  26;  Num.  23,  23; 
24.  I. 

The  Internal  Method  of  Revelation.  By  the  side 
of  these  external  methods  of  divine  revelation  there  was 
known  and  practiced  the  internal  method.  The  deity 
was  thought  in  some  way  to  possess  the  individual, 
to  inspire  him,  to  speak  through  him.  The  most 
illustrious  example  of  this  in  antiquity  is  the  oracle  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi.  Here  the  mediary  betw^een  Apollo 
and  the  people  was  a  woman,  called  Pythia.  The  pro- 
cedure was  as  follows:  "Having  prepared  herself  by 
washing  and  purification,  the  Pythia  entered  the 
sanctuary,  with  gold  ornaments  in  her  hair,  and  flowing 
robes  upon  her ;  she  drank  of  the  water  of  the  fountain 
Cassotis,  which  flowed  into  the  shrine,  tasted  the  fruit 
of  the  old  bay  tree  standing  in  the  chamber,  and  took 
her  seat.  No  one  was  present  but  a  priest,  called  the 
prophetes,  who  explained  the  words  she  uttered  in  her 
ecstasy,  and  put  them  into  metrical  form,  generally 
hexameters."     It  should  be  noted  that  in  this  con- 


22       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

nection  the  term  "prophet"  was  applied  not  to  the 
orre  who  was  thought  to  receive  the  message  from 
the  deity,  but  to  the  man  who  deHvered  it  to  the 
people. 

Differences  between  Hebrew  Prophecy  and  Prophecy 
Outside  of  Israel.  In  this  belief  that  the  deity  pos- 
sessed and  spoke  through  an  individual  we  find  the  con- 
necting link  between  "prophecy"  outside  of  Israel  and 
prophecy  among  the  Hebrews.  But,  while  there  is 
agreement  in  form,  neither  can  be  estimated  properly 
if  we  fail  to  note  the  marked  differences  between  the  two. 
The  chief  of  these  are:  i.  The  nature  and  character 
of  the  deity  in  whose  name  the  oracle  was  given.  If 
the  God  of  the  Hebrews  is  the  one  true  God,  surely  a 
message  delivered  in  his  name  is  not  in  the  same  class 
with  one  given  in  the  name  of  a  deity  that  has  no  real 
existence.  2.  Another  distinguishing  mark  is  the 
character  of  the  truth  or  truths  proclaimed.  The 
utterances  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  are  permeated  by 
a  spirit  absent  from  the  oracles  of  other  nations  and 
religions.  3.  Another  important  fact  which  must  not 
be  overlooked  is  the  more  complete  loss  of  self-con- 
sciousness on  the  part  of  the  non-Israelitish  prophets; 
indeed,  during  the  golden  age  of  Hebrew  prophecy, 
references  to  a  state  of  ecstasy  are  hardly  ever  found; 
there  was  full  recognition  of  conscious,  personal  inter- 
course between  Jehovah  and  his  prophets. 

THE  NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY 

Meaning  of  the  Term  "Prophet."  Etymology  does 
not  aid  us  in  determining  the  conception  implied  in  the 
Hebrew  noun  translated  prophet;  for  the  root  meaning 
of  the  word  is  doubtful.     However,  it  is  not  improba- 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  23 

ble  that  it  is  connected  with  a  verb  found  in  Arabic  in 
the  sense  of  bring  forward  or  announce.  Whether  it  is 
or  not,  one  thing  is  certain,  that  in  itself  it  does  not 
imply  the  idea  of  prediction.  While  the  study  of 
etymology  may  fail  to  lead  to  certain  results,  a  con- 
sideration of  usage  may  prove  more  satisfactory. 
Exod.  7.  I,  reads,  "And  Jehovah  said  unto  Moses,  See, 
I  have  made  thee  as  God  to  Pharaoh;  and  Aaron  thy 
brother  shall  be  thy  prophet";  and  Exod.  4.  16,  "And 
he  shall  be  thy  spokesman  unto  the  people ;  and  it  shall 
come  to  pass,  that  he  shall  be  to  thee  a  mouth,  and  thou 
shalt  be  to  him  as  God."  These  two  verses  suggest  that 
the  prophet  was  looked  upon  as  a  man  who  spoke  for  or 
in  the  name  of  some  one,  especially  in  the  name  of 
the  deity.  In  other  words,  the  Hebrew  prophet  was 
an  ambassador  sent  to  make  known  the  will  and  purpose 
of  Jehovah  to  the  chosen  people  (Amos  3.7,8).  As  such 
he  spoke  for  God,  and  was,  therefore,  more  a  forth- 
teller  than  a  foreteller.  And  yet  prediction  is  not 
excluded ;  for  God  might  desire  to  make  known  his  will 
with  reference  to  the  past,  the  present,  or  the  future; 
in  the  last  case  the  utterance  of  the  prophet  must  take 
the  form  of  prediction. 

Names  Given  to  the  Prophets  in  the  Old  Testament. 
That  the  contemporaries  of  the  prophets  believed  them 
to  sustain  a  peculiarly  close  relation  to  God  is  shown 
by  the  names  which  they  gave  to  them.  The  name 
the  man  of  God  (i  Sam.  9.  6;  i  Kings  12.  22;  Jer.  35.  4) 
occurs  quite  frequently;  another  common  title  is  the 
servant  of  God  or  of  Jehovah  (2  Kings  9.7;!  Kings  14.  18 ; 
18.  36),  which  implies  that  the  prophets  were  com- 
missioned to  carry  out  the  divine  purpose.  Once,  at 
least,  is  found  the  title  the  interpreter  (Isa.  43.  27).    As 


24  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

suggested  in  another  connection,  God  speaks  in  the 
events  of  history,  and  one  duty  of  the  prophets  is  to 
interpret  the  significance  of  these  events  to  their  con- 
temporaries. 

Comprehensiveness  of  the  Prophetic  Interest.  If 
the  interest  of  God  extends  to  all  affairs  of  life,  it  fol- 
lows inevitably  that  the  activity  of  his  representatives 
should  be  very  comprehensive,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
we  find  that  the  prophets  feel  constrained  to  interfere  in 
every  sphere  of  life  and  demand  the  performance  of  the 
will  of  God  everywhere.  Since,  during  the  early  period, 
the  individual  was  almost  completely  lost  sight  of,  while 
the  nation  was  supreme,  it  is  not  strange  that  in  the  be- 
ginning, at  least,  the  prophets'  teaching  should  center 
around  the  nation  rather  than  around  the  individual. 
They  represented  Jehovah  before  the  nation,  and  they 
sought  with  all  their  energies  to  make  Israel  in  very 
truth  the  people  of  God.  Broadly  speaking,  we  may 
say  that  the  prophets  pursued  national  and  religious 
ends;  they  believed  in  the  national  life  of  Israel  and 
fostered  it,  but  they  believed  still  more  in  the  religion  of 
Jehovah,  and  if  at  any  time  the  national  interests  came 
in  conflict  with  the  religious  interests,  the  prophets 
stood  for  the  latter,  though  it  might  involve  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  nation.  This  twofold  interest  of  the  prophets 
may  be  seen  from  the  time  of  Moses  on;  and  by  it 
they  are  distinguished  from  the  seers  who  are  mentioned 
in  the  early  history  of  Israel,  but  who  ministered  rather 
to  personal,  private,  and  temporal  wants.  It  would 
seem  that  Samuel  combined  the  two  offices  and  marked 
in  a  sense  the  transition  from  the  lower  to  the  higher, 
though  even  before  his  day  prophets  of  Jehovah  had 
appeared. 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  25 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY 

The  Exodus  the  Beginning  of  Hebrew  History. 
Israel  had  no  national  existence  until  after  the  exodus 
from  Egypt,  hence  in  this  study  the  period  before  the 
conquest  may  be  left  out  of  consideration.  True,  there 
may  have  been  men  with  prophetic  vision  and  ex- 
perience, but  the  circumstances  were  not  adapted  to  a 
prophetic  work  such  as  was  done  by  the  men  whom 
we  are  accustomed  to  call  prophets.  Their  activity 
presupposed  an  organization  such  as  w^as  first  instituted 
at  the  time  of  the  Exodus. 

Moses  the  First  Great  Prophet.  The  first  great 
Hebrew  prophet  was  Moses.  We  are  accustomed  to 
think  of  him  as  a  lawgiver  and  author,  but  his  chief 
glory  is  rather  that  he  was  the  first  and  greatest  prophet 
of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation.  Moses  did  two 
things:  i.  He  organized  the  heterogeneous  elements 
into  a  national  unity.  2 .  He  gave  to  this  unity  a  prac- 
tical monotheism.  In  this  we  see  the  twofold  activity 
which  is  common  to  all  the  prophets,  national  and 
religious,  with  the  emphasis  upon  the  latter,  for  the 
basis  of  the  national  union  was  the  recognition  of 
Jehovah  as  the  one  God  of  Israel.  Certainly  in  the 
beginning  Moses  had  to  do  some  things  which  at  a 
later  time  were  assigned  to  separate  officials.  In 
reality,  Moses  filled  a  fourfold  office,  though  he  was 
first  of  all  a  prophet:  (i)  He  was  a  prophet,  (2)  a 
priest,  (3)  a  lawgiver,  (4)  a  political  leader.  As  such 
he  laid  the  foundations  for  the  political,  social,  and 
religious  life  of  the  Hebrews. 

Prophecy  During  the  Period  of  the  Judges.  The 
records  of  the  period  of  the  Judges  mention  only  two 
persons  as  occupying  the  prophetic  office,   Deborah, 


26       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  prophetess  (Judg.  4.  4),  and  an  unnamed  prophet 
(Judg.  6.  8).  Both  deserve  to  be  called  by  the  name. 
Deborah  was  the  leader  in  a  great  movement  for  national 
independence,  and  the  national  movement  had  its  basis 
in  a  religious  revival;  the  people  were  urged  to  come 
"to  the  help  of  Jehovah  against  the  mighty."  The 
unnamed  prophet  also  connected  national  disaster 
with  apostasy,  and  therefore,  by  implication,  national 
prosperity  with  loyalty  to  Jehovah. 

Samuel  and  the  Sons  of  the  Prophets.  In  the  days 
of  Samuel  men  called  prophets  appeared  in  great 
numbers.  During  the  wars  of  conquest  religion  was  lost 
sight  of  again  and  again;  but  the  religious  leaders  and 
a  minority  of  the  people  always  recognized  that  victory 
could  be  theirs  only  if  they  were  united,  and  they  knew 
that  the  only  efficient  bond  of  unity  was  the  common 
faith  in  Jehovah.  When  the  continued  successes  of  the 
Philistines  threatened  the  national  life  of  the  Hebrews, 
there  arose  a  group  of  religious  enthusiasts, who  preached 
the  almost  forgotten  truth  that  Jehovah  was  the 
God  of  Israel,  and  in  his  name  they  proclaimed  a  holy 
war  against  the  Philistines.  Without  leadership  these 
"sons  of  the  prophets"  could  not  have  accomplished 
anything,  but  under  the  direction  of  Samuel  they 
must  have  played  an  important  role  during  the  Philis- 
tine crisis,  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  mon- 
archy. At  the  commartd  of  God  and  through  the  co- 
operation of  the  prophets  Saul  became  king,  and  at 
first  the  prophetic  influence  of  Samuel  continued,  but 
in  time  Saul,  whose  lot  was  cast  with  the  political  and 
military  party  rather  than  M'ith  the  representatives  of 
Jehovah,  gave  evidence  that  he  was  unwilling  to  abide 
by  the  policy  of  the  religious  party.    Samuel  considered 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY       2j 

this  a  serious  religious  danger,  and  David,  "a  man  after 
God's  own  heart,"  who  might  be  expected  to  follow  the 
prophetic  leading,  was  anointed  king. 
Prophecy  During  the  Reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 

During  the  next  few  generations  the  prophets  appear 
upon  the  scene  but  rarely;  but  whenever  we  get  a 
glimpse  of  them  they  show  themselves  worthy  succes- 
sors of  Moses,  Deborah,  and  Samuel,  and  worthy 
predecessors  of  Elijah,  Amos,  Isaiah,  and  the  rest. 
Nathan  boldly  denounces  David  (2  Sam.  12.  iff.);  Gad 
also  delivers  a  message  affecting  vitally  king  and  peo- 
ple (2  Sam.  24.  I  iff.)  I  Nathan  has  an  important  part 
in  the  crowning  of  Solomon  (i  Kings  i.  iiff.). 

The  Prophets  and  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom. 
The  next  political  event  of  importance  was  the  division 
of  the  kingdom  subsequent  to  the  death  of  Solomon, 
and  again  we  find  the  prophets  taking  an  active  interest. 
In  accord  with  their  general  policy,  they  favored  the 
division  (i  Kings  11.  29ff. ;  12.  22ff.),  because  they  were 
convinced  that  a  continuation  of  the  policy  of  Solomon 
would  result  in  the  loss  of  true  religion,  and  they 
were  willing  to  sacrifice  the  state,  if  only  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  could  be  saved. 

The  Rise  of  False  Prophecy.  The  hopes  of  the 
prophets  were  not  fully  realized,  for  the  kings  of  the 
northern  kingdom  w^ere  by  no  means  all  ardent  wor- 
shipers of  Jehovah.  In  name  he  continued  to  be  the 
God  of  Israel,  but  the  conduct  of  the  kings,  who  found 
ready  imitators  among  the  people,  was  not  such  as  to 
allay  the  fears  of  the  zealous  Jehovah  prophets.  An- 
other danger  threatened  from  the  rise  of  false  prophecy. 
In  the  course  of  the  centuries  the  prophetic  office  grew  in 
influence,  and  this  increase  in  power  became  in  itself  a 


28       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

danger,  for  it  attracted  many  recruits  who  were  without 
the  prophetic  spirit,  and  who  became  prophets  simply 
because  the  office  seemed  to  assure  an  easy  and  com- 
fortable living.  These  prophets  undermined  the  in- 
fluence of  the  true  prophets  and  were  responsible  to  a 
large  extent  for  the  corrupt  practices  condemned  so 
severely  by  the  later  prophets.  Two  classes  of  false 
prophets  may  be  distinguished:  On  the  one  hand,  the 
mercenary  prophets,  who  are  described  by  Micah  (3.5) 
in  these  words:  "The  prophets  that  make  my  people 
to  err;  that  bite  with  their  teeth,  and  cry.  Peace;  and 
whoso  putteth  not  into  their  mouths,  they  even  pre- 
pare war  against  him."  These  prophets  were  following 
the  sentiment,  "Whose  bread  I  eat,  his  song  I  sing." 
On  the  other  hand,  there  were  the  political  prophets, 
who,  unlike  the  mercenary  prophets,  may  have  been 
sincere,  but  who  lost  sight  of  the  religious  mission  and 
destiny  of  the  nation,  and  whose  utterances  were 
determined  entirely  by  political  ambitions.  Both 
classes  were  a  menace  to  the  religion  of  Jehovah  as 
understood  by  the  true  prophets. 

The  Reign  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  In  the  days  of 
Ahab  a  test  was  applied  to  the  prophets  which  tempo- 
rarily separated  the  true  prophets  from  the  false,  and 
led  to  a  new  struggle  which  ended  in  the  triumph  of 
Jehovah.  Omri  and  Ahab  were  two  of  the  greatest 
kings  of  the  northern  kingdom.  In  order  to  fortify 
his  position  the  former  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
king  of  Tyre,  and  sealed  it  by  the  marriage  of  his  son 
Ahab  to  Jezebel,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Tyre.  Ahab, 
an  energetic  king,  was  religiously  indifferent,  and 
though  there  is  no  indication  that  he  himself  at  any 
time   ceased   to   worship   Jehovah,    he    showed   little 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  29 

active  interest  in  the  God  of  his  people.  Jezebel,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  a  religious  zealot,  and  she  soon 
gained  many  concessions  from  the  king,  which  gave 
a  prominent  place  to  her  own  god  Baal.  The  great 
mass  of  the  people,  seeing  the  indifference  of  the  king, 
followed  the  example  of  her  who  represented  to  them, 
by  her  enthusiasm  and  zeal,  the  policy  of  the  court; 
and  so  did  the  false  prophets,  who  thought  that  their 
interests  demanded  loyalty  to  the  court.  To  permit 
the  worship  of  another  deity  by  the  side  of  Jehovah  in 
Israel  was  considered  treason  by  the  true  prophets. 
Something  must  be  done  to  save  the  religion  of  their  God. 

The  Activity  of  Elijah  and  Elisha.  The  crisis  brought 
forth  two  great  representatives  of  Jehovah,  Elijah  and 
Elisha,  who,  each  in  his  own  way,  boldly  and  fearlessly 
carried  on  the  struggle,  until  they  finally  succeeded  in 
driving  the  hated  worship  from  Israel  and  the  faithless 
dynasty  from  the  throne.  Once  more  the  nation  came 
to  acknowledge  Jehovah  as  its  God.  Succeeding  proph- 
ets still  found  it  necessary  to  counteract  the  tendency 
to  apostatize  from  Jehovah,  but  their  chief  duty  was 
to  set  in  a  clearer  light  the  nature  and  character  of 
Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel,  and  his  purpose  for  the 
nation  and  mankind.  How  they  did  this  our  study 
of  the  separate  books  will  show. 

The  Hebrew  Prophets  in  Chronological  Order.  Here 
it  may  be  sufficient  to  enumerate  the  canonical  prophets 
in  their  chronological  order,  and  to  point  out  briefly 
the  principal  theme  of  each: 

I.  TPie  eighth  century  prophets,  or,  the  prophets  of  the  Assyr- 
ian period. 

1.  In  Israel:     Amos.  c.  755;  Rosea,  c.  750-735. 

2.  In  Judah:    Isaiah,  c.  740-700;  Micah,  c.  735-700. 


30       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

II.  The  seventh  century  prophets,  or,  the  prophets  of  the 
Chaldean  period  (all  in  Judah,  since  the  northern 
kingdom  disappeared  in  722). 

Jeremiah,  c.   626-586;  Zephaniah,  c.   626;  Nahum,  c. 

608 ;  Habakkuk,  c.  600. 

III.  The  prophets  of  the  exile. 

Ezekiel,  S93-570;  Obadiah,  after  586,  The  author  of 
Isa.   4  off.   speaks   from   the  historical  background   of 

c.  545- 

IV.  The  prophets  after  the  exile. 

Haggai,  520;  Zechariah  (the  author  of  chapters  1-8), 
520-518;  Malachi,  c.  450;  Joel,  c.  400*  the  author  or 
authors  of  Zech.  9-14,  after  350. 

The  Books  of  Jonah  and  Daniel.  This  leaves  two 
books  which  are  grouped  among  the  prophetic  books 
in  the  English  Old  Testament,  Jonah  and  Daniel.  The 
book  of  Jonah  centers  around  a  prophet  who  lived  c. 
770  B.  C.  (2  Kings  14.  25.),  but  as  a  literary  composition 
it  belongs  to  a  much  later  age,  c.  400-250.  The  Book 
of  Daniel  is  not  reckoned  among  the  prophetic  books 
in  the  Jewish  canon,  but  among  the  Writings.  It  is 
not  a  prophetic  work  in  the  narrow  sense,  but  belongs 
rather  to  the  apocalyptic  literature.  In  its  present 
form  it  is  generally  thought  to  have  originated  during 
the  Maccabean  struggles,  c.  168  B.  C. 

Teaching  of  the  Eighth  Century  Prophets.  The  early 
part  of  the  eighth  century  was  a  period  of  marvelous 
prosperity  for  both  Israel  and  Judah,  which,  however, 
brought  great  evils  in  its  train.  The  religion  of  Jehovah 
was  threatened  by  two  perils:  (i)  Moral  and  religious 
corruption,  due  to  a  wrong  conception  of  the  character 
of  Jehovah;  (2)  The  successes  of  the  Assyrians,  which 
were  to  the  great  mass  of  people  an  evidence  of  the 
superiority  of  the  Assyrian  deities,  and  might  lead  to 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  31 

apostasy  from  Jehovah.  Either  threatened  the  very 
life  of  Jehovah  rehgion.  All  four  prophets  of  the  eighth 
century  were  convinced  that  the  only  remedy  was  a 
right  conception  of  the  nature  and  character  of  their 
God;  and  this  they  proceeded  to  supply,  (i)  All  em- 
phasized the  universality  of  the  divine  sway,  and  de- 
clared that  the  successes  of  the  Assyrians  were  due  not 
to  Jehovah's  weakness,  but  to  the  people's  sins,  which 
compelled  Jehovah  to  send  judgment  upon  them;  and 
he  selected  the  Assyrians  as  executioners  of  his  judg- 
ment. (2)  All  sought  to  impress  upon  the  people  a 
more  adequate  conception  of  the  character  of  Jehovah, 
each  emphasizing  that  phase  of  the  divine  character 
which  he  considered  best  adapted  to  his  day  and  genei  - 
ation.  Amos  laid  special  stress  upon  the  righteousness 
of  Jehovah,  Hosea  upon  his  love,  Isaiah  upon  his  holiness 
and  majesty,  Micah  upon  the  divine  judgments.  Of  the 
four,  Isaiah  was  the  greatest.  His  statesmanship  is 
worthy  of  note. 

Activity  of  the  Seventh  Century  Prophets.  During 
the  religious  reaction  under  Manasseh  and  Amon  the 
voice  of  prophecy  was  not  heard.  But  when  Josiah,  who 
seems  to  have  been  under  prophetic  influence  from  the 
beginning,  came  to  the  throne,  in  639,  a  brighter  day 
dawned.  Jeremiah  was  the  prophet  of  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem. At  first  he  attempted  reforms,  hoping  that  the 
nation  might  yet  be  saved.  When  he  saw  that  tht, 
doom  of  the  nation  was  inevitable,  he  sought  to  save 
religion  by  separating  it  from  the  state  and  other 
external  institutions,  and  emphasizing  its  individual 
and  spiritual  aspects.  He  also  sought  to  encourage 
the  troubled  saints  by  promises  of  a  glorious  restoration. 
Zephaniah  pronounced  a  message  of  judgment  upon  the 


32       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

whole  world,  especially  upon  Judah  and  Jerusalem. 
Nahum  was  the  prophet  of  Nineveh's  downfall.  Hab- 
akkuk  boldly  questioned  the  justice  of  God  in  permitting 
the  wicked  Jews  to  oppress  their  righteous  countrymen 
and  the  godless  Chaldeans  to  execute  judgment  upon 
the  more  righteous  Jews. 

Activity  of  the  Prophets  of  the  Exile.  Obadiah 
prophesied  soon  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  He  con- 
demns the  Edomites  for  their  participation  in  the 
overthrow  of  the  city.  Ezekiel  was  carried  into  exile 
in  597  and  began  his  prophetic  ministry  in  593.  Down 
to  586  his  chief  aim  was  to  destroy  the  false  hopes  of  the 
first  exiles,  who  expected  to  be  restored  to  their  own 
land  in  a  short  time.  After  the  fall  of  the  city  his  sole 
ambition  was  to  maintain  and  develop  among  the  exiles 
a  deep  spiritual  religion,  in  order  that  they  might  be 
prepared  for  the  return  when  the  proper  time  would 
arrive.  Convinced  of  the  certainty  of  a  future  restora- 
tion, he  mapped  out  a  scheme  for  the  establishment 
of  a  religious  community  in  the  holy  land. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  period  of  exile  the  captives 
received  encouragement  from  the  prophecies  con- 
tained in  Isa.  40  ff.,  which  were  intended  to  prepare  the 
Jews  for  the  return. 

Activity  of  the  Prophets  After  the  Exile.  Haggai 
and  Zechariah  were  contemporaries.  They  worked 
chiefly  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  and  in  this 
they  were  successful.  The  ministry  of  Malachi  is 
connected  with  the  reform  movement  under  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah.  He  condemns  the  faithlessness  of  the 
priests,  the  neglect  of  the  temple  service,  the  non- 
payment of  tithes,  divorces,  and  the  marrying  of 
foreign  women.    Joel  urges  a  sincere  return  to  Jehovah, 


NATURE  OF  HEBREW  PROPHECY  ^3 

in  order  to  escape  the  terrors  of  the  day  of  Jehovah, 
a  foreshadowing  of  which  he  sees  in  a  terrible  plague 
of  locusts.  Th'^  author  of  the  Book  of  Jonah  teaches 
the  universality  of  the  love  of  God,  and  thus  seeks  to 
counteract  the  narrow  exclusiveness  of  the  postexilic 
Judaism.  The  author  of  Daniel  means  to  encourage 
the  troubled  Jews  of  the  Maccabean  period. 

Decline  and  Extinction  of  Prophecy.  The  golden 
age  of  Hebrew  prophecy  was  from  Amos  to  Jeremiah; 
with  Ezekiel  began  the  period  of  decline,  which  con- 
tinued until  living  prophecy  gave  way  to  other 
agencies  of  instruction.  The  reasons  for  this  decline 
can  easily  be  seen:  i.  Early  in  the  postexilic  period 
the  ultimate  authority  was  placed  in  the  written  law, 
which  sought  to  lay  down  rules  meeting  every  ex- 
perience of  life.  The  prophets  were  succeeded  by  the 
scribes,  whose  duty  it  was  to  expound  that  which  was 
written.  2.  The  great  prophets  had  covered  the  entire 
field  of  theology  and  morals;  and  the  new  demand 
was  for  men  who  could  systematize  these  truths  and 
teach  them  to  the  people.  This  in  itself  would  not  do 
away  with  prophetic  experience;  but  with  the  law  as 
ultimate  criterion,  instead  of  a  living  union  with  God, 
the  danger  was  very  real,  and  subsequent  events  show 
that  the  religious  teachers  yielded  to  the  temptation. 
3.  A  third  reason  which  must  have  exerted  some  in- 
fluence was  the  destruction  of  the  national  life.  The 
nation  was  the  subject  of  the  great  prophetic  utterances. 
When  the  nation  was  gone  the  task  of  the  prophet 
was  in  part  done.  The  readjustment  was  along  legal 
and  ceremonial  lines,  which  crowded  out  the  prophets. 

Jesus  and  the  Prophets.  The  voice  of  Hebrew 
prophecy    was    silenced,    bu^^     the    truth    proclaimed 


34       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

throughout  the  centuries  continued  to  Hve;  and  when 
the  great  prophet  of  Nazareth  appeared,  he  gathered 
from  his  predecessors  all  that  was  permanent  and 
divine,  and,  quickening  it  by  his  own  mighty  person- 
ality, he  sent  it  down,  the  ages  until  by  its  life-giving 
power  it  should  quicken  all  men  and  make  them  friends 
of  God  and  prophets. 


CHAPTER  III 
AMOS 

POLITICAL   CONDITIONS  IN  ISRAEL  DURING  THE  EIGHTH 
CENTURY  B.  C. 

The  Revolution  of  Jehu.  About  the  year  842  Jehu 
was  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Israel  through  a  con- 
spiracy in  which  the  prophetic  party  had.  no  small  share 
(2  Kings  9,  10).  Undoubtedly  the  loyal  worshipers 
of  Jehovah  expected  that  he  would  cooperate  with  them 
to  purify  religion,  and  at  first  he  did  not  disappoint 
them,  for  he  ruthlessly  destroyed  the  worship  of  Baal 
and  the  idolatrous  dynasty  of  Omri.  But  in  the  end 
Jehu  proved  himself  little  more  than  an  unscrupulous 
adventurer,  who  improved  every  opportunity  to  ad- 
vance his  own  personal  interest.  From  him  pure  re- 
ligion could  hope  for  little  peiTnanent  aid.  True,  he 
rooted  out  Baalism,  but  in  its  place  he  restored  the 
half-heathenish  bull  worship  introduced  by  Jeroboam  I. 

From  Jehu  to  Jeroboam  II.  Politically,  also,  his 
reign  proved  disastrous.  It  was  during  his  reign  that 
"Jehovah  began  to  cut  off  from  Israel;  and  Hazael 
smote  them  in  all  the  borders  of  Israel ;  from  the  Jordan 
eastward,  all  the  land  of  Gilead,  the  Gadites,  and  the 
Reubenites,  and  the  Manassites,  from  Aroer,  which  is 
by  the  valley  of  the  Amon,  even  Gilead  and  Bashan" 
(2  Kings  10.  32,  33).  The  misfortunes  continued  under 
his  son  and  successor  Jehoahaz  (2  Kings  13.  3,  7). 
Israel   se<;med   on    the    verge   of    destruction;    but   it 

35 


36       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

revived  once  more.  Under  the  successor  of  Jehoahaz, 
Joash  or  Jehoash,  the  fortunes  of  Israel  began  to  turn 
(2  Kings  13.  25).  In  part  at  least  the  victories  of  Israel 
at  this  time  were  made  possible  by  the  advance  of 
Assyria,  which  compelled  Syria  to  withdraw  her  forces 
from  the  southwestern  boundary  and  concentrate  them 
against  that  powerful  foe  in  the  southeast. 

The  Reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  The  successes  of  Israel 
continued  under  Jeroboam  II;  he  became  a  "saviour" 
of  Israel  (2  Kings  14.  27),  recovered  all  the  territory  that 
had  been  lost,  and  added  to  it  in  every  direction;  he 
even  captured  Damascus  (2  Kings  14.  23-29).  These 
triumphs  in  war,  the  revival  of  commerce,  and  the  new 
development  of  the  internal  resources  raised  Israel  to  a 
pitch  of  power  and  prosperity  greater  than  had  been 
enjoyed  since  the  days  of  Solomon. 

SOCIAL,  MORAL,  AND  RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 

Prosperity  and  Luxury.  The  social,  moral,  and 
religious  conditions  in  Israel  are  portrayed  very  vividly 
by  the  prophets  of  this  period,  Amos  and  Hosea.  The 
former  paints  a  glowing  picture  of  the  prosperity  in 
Israel.  The  luxury  of  the  rich,  made  possible  by  the 
increased  wealth,  met  the  eyes  of  the  simple  herdsman 
on  every  hand.  The  palaces  built  of  hewn  stone  (5,  11), 
some  of  them  paneled  with  ivory  (3.  15),  the  pretentious 
summer  and  winter  residences  (3.  15),  the  extravagant 
interior  finish  (3.  12 ;  6.  4),  all  were  to  him  evidence  that 
the  former  simplicity  and  stability  were  threatened 
with  extinction.  He  could  not  avoid  seeing  or  hearing 
the  drunken  revelries  (6.  5,  6),  nor  could  he  be  blind  to 
the  mad  extravagance  which  found  satisfaction  only  in 
possessing  the  choicest  and  best  of  ever>^tliing,   the 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  37 

chief  oils  (6.  6),  the  most  delicate  meats  (6.  4),  the  best 
music  (6.  5). 

The  sanctuaries  shared  in  the  general  prosperity.  The 
chief  sanctuary  at  Beth-el  was  under  royal  patronage 
(7.  13),  and  it  was  thronged  with  worshipers  (9.  i);  the 
other  sanctuaries  were  diligently  visited  (4.  4 ;  5.  5  ;  8.  14) ; 
offerings  and  tithes  were  brought  regularly  and  in 
abundance;  feasts  were  celebrated  with  all  possible 
pomp  (4.  4,  5;  5.  21-23). 

Violence  and  Oppression.  A  nation  so  prosperous 
and  so  zealous  in  the  fulfillment  of  its  religious  obli- 
gations might  well  be  called  blessed.  But  the  prophet 
was  not  deceived  by  the  superficial  prosperity;  he  saw 
the  dark  side  of  the  nation's  life  with  equal  clearness. 
The  wealth  and  luxury  of  the  rich  were  obtained  by 
violence  and  robbery  (3.  10) ;  by  the  oppression  of  the 
poor  and  needy,  who  were  driven  into  actual  slavery 
by  their  cruel  creditors  (2.  6,  7;  8.  6) ;  by  dishonest 
trading,  in  which  every  possible  advantage  was  taken 
of  the  unsuspecting  buyer  (8.  4-6) ;  by  exacting  presents 
and  bribes  (5.  11,  12).  Women  were  no  better  than  men ; 
to  satisfy  their  appetites  they  urged  their  husbands  to 
greater  cruelties  (4.  i).  Public  and  private  virtue  had 
almost  completely  died  out.  The  corruption  of  the 
courts  of  justice  was  notorious  (5.  7,  10,  12;  6.  12); 
the  poor  could  get  no  satisfactory  hearing,  justice  was 
bought  and  sold  (5.  12).  Immoralities  were  practiced 
without  shame  (2.  7).  Tradesmen  were  impatient  at 
the  interruption  of  their  greedy  pursuits  by  the  sacred 
days  (8.  5).    All  humane  feelings  were  smothered  (2.  8). 

Attitude  of  the  Nobles.  The  situation  was  the  more 
hopeless  because  the  leaders,  who  should  have  been  the 
protectors  and  guardians  of  the  people,  were  the  leaders 


38       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

in  vice  and  crime  (6.  i-6),  and.  were  indifferent  to 
the  " affliction  of  Joseph"  (6.  6).  Those  who  attempted 
to  reprove  the  wrong  and  uphold  the  right  were  despised 
and  abhorred  (5.  10;  7.  10-13). 

Self-righteousness.  With  this  disregard  of  all  human 
and  divine  law  there  went,  strangely  enough,  a  feeling 
of  absolute  security  and  self-righteousness.  The  great 
mass  of  people  believed  that,  in  view  of  their  pains- 
taking observance  of  the  external  ceremonial,  they  had 
a  claim  upon  the  divine  favor,  and  that  Jehovah  was 
bound  to  be  with  them  and  to  protect  them  from  all 
harm  (5.  14).  This  deplorable  religious,  moral,  and  so- 
cial condition  was  all  due  to  a  false  conception  of  the 
nature  and  character  of  Jehovah.  "When  men  cori-upt 
the  image  of  God  in  their  hearts,  they  forthwith  pro- 
ceed to  the  debasing  of  themselves,  and  then  to  such 
enmity  and  strife  that  the  bonds  of  society  are  wholly 
broken." 

THE  PERSON  AND  LIFE  OF  THE  PROPHET 

Home  of  Amos.  To  a  loyal  adherent  of  Jehovah  con- 
ditions must  have  appeared  desperate.  Something 
must  be  done  if  the  religion  of  Jehovah  w^as  to  be  saved. 
Amos  came  to  the  front  to  stem  and,  if  possible,  turn 
the  tide.  Though  his  message  was  to  the  northern 
kingdom,  the  prophet  came  from  Tekoa  (i.  i),  a  town 
of  Judah  (7.  12),  about  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem 
and  about  twelve  miles  south  of  Jeitisalem. 

Occupations.  Amos  was  not  a  prophet  by  educa- 
tion or  profession  (7.  14).  His  occupation  was  that  of  a 
herdsman  (i.  i;  7.  14);  literally,  "a  keeper  of  naJcad 
sheep,"  which  is  a  species  of  sheep  small  and  stunted 
in  growth,  with  short  legs  and  ill-formed  faces,  but 
highly  esteemed  for  their  wool. 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  39 

Amos  also  calls  himself  "one  who  handles  the  syco- 
more  fig,"  R.V.,  "a  dresser  of  sycomore  trees"  (7.  14). 
The  sycomore  to  which  reference  is  here  made  is  a  tree 
which  attains  the  size  of  a  walnut  tree ;  it  has  wide- 
spreading  branches,  and  is  therefore  a  favorite  shade- 
tree  (Luke  19.  14).  The  fruit,  which  grows  in  clusters 
on  little  sprigs  rising  directly  out  of  the  stem,  is  like  a 
small  fig  in  shape  and  size,  but  insipid  and  woody  in 
taste.  It  is  infested  with  a  small  insect,  and  unless 
the  fruit  is  punctured  to  allow  the  insect  to  escape,  it 
does  not  become  edible.  With  the  insect  escapes  a 
bitter  juice,  and  then  the  fruit  ripens  and  becomes 
edible,  though  never  very  palatable.  The  operation 
of  puncturing  the  fruit  is  undoubtedly  meant  in  the 
case  of  Amos. 

The  Prophet's  Preparation  through  his  Occupation. 
It  was  while  following  his  daily  occupation  that  the 
divine  call  reached  Amos  (7.  15);  but  the  call  did  not 
find  him  unprepared.  He  belonged  to  the  "right- 
minded  minority"  among  the  Hebrews,  that,  in  spite 
of  all  influences  to  the  contrary,  retained  its  faith  and 
loyalty  to  Jehovah.  With  an  open  mind  and  a  quick- 
ened conscience  he  undoubtedly  often  meditated  upon 
the  things  of  God  as  he  dwelt  in  the  solitude  of  the 
desert.  Accustomed  to  the  simpler  life  of  the  herds- 
man, he  would  feel  more  keenly  the  extravagance, 
luxury,  and  corruption  of  the  aristocracy.  Compelled 
to  defend  himself  and  his  flock  against  the  dangers  of  the 
desert,  he  would  not  easily  shrink  from  the  dangers 
confronting  a  prophet  of  Jehovah.  Carefully  watching 
every  shadow  and  noise,  not  knowing  how  soon  a  wild 
beast  would  rush  upon  him  from  the  apparent  quietness, 
he  readily  developed  the  vigilance  and  power  of  dis- 


40       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

cemment  which  kept  him  from  being  deceived  by  the 
superficial  piety  and  prosperity  of  his  countrymen. 

Amos's  Visits  to  the  Cities  of  Israel.  The  influence 
of  the  lonely  shepherd  life  in  shaping  Amos  into  a 
"vessel  meet  for  the  Master's  use"  cannot  easily  be 
overestimated.  But  Amos  did  not  receive  his  training 
exclusively  in  the  solitude  of  the  desert.  "As  a  wool 
grower,  Amos  must  have  had  his  yearly  journeys  among 
the  markets  of  the  land ;  and  to  such  were  probably  due 
his  opportunities  for  familiarity  with  northern  Israel, 
the  originals  of  his  vivid  pictures  of  her  town  life, 
her  commerce,  and  her  worship  at  the  great  sanctuaries." 

The  Keen  Perception  of  Amos.  To  these  sights 
Amos  brought  from  the  desert  a  penetrating  vision,  a 
quickened  conscience,  and  keen  powers  of  discernment. 
"He  saw  the  raw  facts — the  poverty,  the  cruel  negli- 
gence of  the  rich,  the  injustice  of  the  rulers,  the  im- 
moralities of  the  priests.  The  meaning  of  these  things 
he  questioned  with  as  much  persistency  as  he  questioned 
every  suspicious  sound  or  sight  upon  the  pastures  of 
Tekoa.  He  had  no  illusions;  he  knew  a  mirage  when 
he  saw  one.  Neither  the  military  pride  of  the  people, 
fostered  by  recent  successes  over  Syria,  nor  the  dogmas 
of  their  religion,  which  asserted  Jehovah's  swift  triumph 
over  the  heathen,  could  prevent  him  from  knowing  that 
the  immorality  of  Israel  meant  Israel's  political  down- 
fall. He  was  one  of  those  recruits  from  common  life 
by  whom  religion  and  the  state  have  always  been  re- 
formed. Springing  from  the  laity  and  very  often  from 
among  the  working  classes,  their  freedom  from  dogmas 
and  routine,  as  well  as  from  the  compromising  interests 
of  wealth,  rank,  and  party,  renders  them  experts  in  life 
to  a  degree  that  almost  no  professional  priest,  statesman. 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  41 

or  journalist,  however  honest  or  sympathetic,  can  rival. 
Into  politics  they  bring  facts,  but  into  religion  they 
bring  vision." 

The  Prophet's  Experience  at  Beth-el.  Such  a  man, 
prepared,  under  the  divine  providence,  by  his  very 
occupation,  was  Amos  when  he  heard  the  call  of  Jeho- 
vah. A  man  of  his  character  could  not  refuse  to  obey 
the  divine  voice.  He  left  his  flocks  and  sycomore  groves 
and  journeyed  to  Beth-el,  the  religious  center  of  the 
northern  kingdom.  There  under  the  shadow  of  the 
royal  sanctuary  (7.  13)  he  delivered  his  God-given  mes- 
sage of  warning  and  exhortation.  How  long  he  re- 
mained at  Beth-el  we  do  not  know.  Finally  Amaziah, 
the  chief  priest,  aroused  by  the  announcement  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  sanctuaries  and  of  the  dynasty  of 
Jeroboam,  accused  Amos  of  treason  and  bade  him  re- 
turn to  his  own  home  and  make  a  living  there.  Amos 
was  not  so  easily  frightened ;  he  defended  his  action  and 
repeated  his  message  of  judgment. 

Later  Life  of  Amos.  Of  Amos's  later  life  we  know 
nothing.  But  in  view  of  the  well-plaimed  disposition  of 
his  prophecies,  and  in  view  of  the  reference  "two  years 
before  the  earthquake"  (i.  i) — showing  that  the  words 
were  not  written  until  after  the  earthquake  had  oc- 
curred— it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  after  he  had 
completed  his  prophetic  ministration  he  returned  to 
Tekoa,  took  up  his  former  occupation,  and  at  his  leisure 
arranged  his  prophecies  in  their  present  form  in  writing, 
or,  at  least,  that  they  were  written  under  his  direction. 

The  Date  of  Amos.  The  date  of  Amos's  appearance 
is  fixed  by  i.  i  during  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II  of  Israel 
(c.  782-741)  and  Uzziah  of  Judah  (c,  789-737);  in 
other  words,  between  about  780  and  740.    From  a  com- 


42       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

parison  of  6.  14  with  2  Kings  14.  25  we  may  further  infei 
that  when  the  prophet  appeared,  the  conquests  of 
Jeroboam  were  accompHshed,  and  the  tone  of  the  entire 
book  suggests  that  the  evil  results  of  these  successes 
were  already  felt.  Consequently  it  may  be  safe  to  place 
the  activity  of  Amos  after  the  middle  of  Jeroboam's 
reign,  about  755. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  AMOS 

Logical  Arrangement  of  the  Book.  Either  the 
prophet  himself  or  some  of  his  disciples  collected  the 
substarce  of  Amos's  message  into  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Book  of  Amos.  The  arrangement  of  the  separate 
utterances  is  not  chronological  but  logical,  the  thought 
being  developed  as  follows:  The  book  opens  with 
threats  of  judgment  against  the  surrounding  nations, 
against  Judah  and  especially  against  Israel ;  these  are 
followed  by  a  presentation  of  the  reasons  for  the  judg- 
ment ;  five  visions  of  the  execution  of  the  judgment ;  and, 
after  a  brief  reference  to  the  effects  upon  both  godly 
and  ungodly,  the  book  closes  with  a  description  of  the 
exaltation  and  glory  of  the  remnant  that  will  escape  the 
judgment. 

The  Book  of  Amos  falls  naturally  into  three  divisions : 
Chapters  i,  2,  the  prologue;  chapters  3-6,  a  series  of 
discourses;  chapters  7-9,  a  series  of  visions,  inter- 
rupted by  a  piece  of  narrative  and  short  remarks  on  the 
sajne  subjects  as  are  discussed  in  chapters  3-6. 

The  Prologue,  Chapters  i  and  2.  Substance  and 
form  combine  to  show  that  chapters  i  and  2  constitute 
a  connected  whole.  Following  the  title  (i.  i)  and  the 
preface  (i.  2)  comes  a  preparatory  section  (i.  3 — 2.  5) 
leading  up  to  the  central  thought,  the  condemnation 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  43 

of  Israel  (2.  6-16).  Every  listener  would  admit  that 
Damascus,  Philistia,  Phoenicia,  Edom,  Ammon,  and 
Moab,  all  neighboring  nations  which  again  and  again 
had  manifested  a  spirit  of  hostility  against  Israel,  de- 
served the  wrath  of  Jehovah.  Even  Judah,  more  or 
less  hostile  since  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  merited 
judgment.  Consequently  these  opening  denunciations 
would  awaken  a  ready  response  and  win  the  good  will 
of  the  hearers.  When  he  had  thus  prepared  the  way 
the  prophet  burst  forth  in  a  message  of  denunciation 
and  judgment  upon  Israel.  By  their  silent  consent  to 
the  condemnation  of  the  other  nations  they  had  pro- 
nounced the  sentence  of  doom  upon  themselves. 

Discourses  of  Denunciation,  Chapters  3-6.  The 
denunciation  of  Israel  in  2.  6-16  maybe  called  the 
thesis  of  the  Book  of  Amos ;  the  rest  is  simply  an  elab- 
oration of  this  thesis.  Chapters  3-6  form  the  main  part 
of  the  entire  book.  It  consists  of  five  sections  which 
may  be  called  discourses,  in  which  the  indictment  and 
sentence  of  2.  6-16  are  expanded  and  justified. 

Condemnation  of  the  Ruling  Classes,  3.  i — 4.  3.  The 
first  discourse  (3.  i — 4.  3)  is  intended  primarily  for  the 
ruling  classes.  It  begins  with  an  admission  that  Je- 
hovah had  known  Israel  in  a  special  manner.  From  this 
fact  the  people  drew  the  inference  that  Jehovah  would 
always  be  on  their  side,  irrespective  of  their  life  and 
conduct,  and  that  the  divine  care  in  the  past  was  a 
guarantee  of  the  people's  safety  in  the  future.  In  reply 
the  prophet  points  out  briefly  that  the  popular  belief 
is  unwarranted,  and  that  the  inferences  drawn  from  the 
divine  choice  are  false;  that  the  divine  choice  brought 
to  Israel  certain  privileges,  and  that  these  privileges 
involved  special  obligations.    Since  they  failed  to  meet 


44       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

these  obligations,  the  fact  of  the  divine  choice  only 
increased  their  guilt,  and  now  makes  inevitable  their 
punishment  by  a  righteous  God  (3.  i,  2). 

This  startling  announcement  would  arouse  derision 
and  opposition.  To  ward  off  these  the  prophet  pro- 
ceeds to  point  out  that,  strange  as  the  declaration  may 
seem,  it  is  of  Jehovah  (3-8).  In  pff.  he  calls  upon  the 
surrounding  nations  to  testify  against  Israel.  The 
privileges  of  Israel  were  superior  to  those  of  other  na- 
tions, nevertheless  their  crimes  are  so  heinous  that 
they  startle  even  heathen  nations  (9,  10).  This  con- 
dition of  affairs  makes  judgment  inevitable  (11-15). 
A  special  judgment  will  fall  upon  the  luxury-loving 
and  self-indulgent  ladies  of  the  capital,  who  are  in 
part  responsible  for  the  prevailing  corruption  (4.  1-3). 

The  Unheeded  Chastisements,  4.  4-13.  The  second 
discourse  (4.  4-13)  is  addressed  to  the  people  at  large. 
The  occasion  was  probably  a  religious  gathering  when 
the  people,  by  their  zeal  for  the  external  requirements, 
accompanied  by  an  utter  disregard  of  the  divine  ethical 
demands,  had  revealed  their  utter  misapprehension  of 
the  will  of  Jehovah.  In  an  ironical  vein  Amos  exhorts 
them  to  continue  their  heartless  ceremonial  worship, 
"for  this  pleaseth  you,"  implying  at  the  same  time 
that  Jehovah  takes  no  delight  in  it  (4,  5).  Again  and 
again  he  sought  to  make  them  understand  his  dissatis- 
faction with  their  conduct,  and  to  bring  them  to  their 
senses  by  means  of  seven  natural  calamities,  but  in 
vain  (6-1 1).  Hence  he  can  do  nothing  but  send  a 
final  blow,  for  which  they  must  now  prepare  them- 
selves (12,  13). 

Laxaentation,  Denunciation,  Exhortation,  Threats  of 
Ruin,  5.  1-17.   The  third  discourse  (5.  1-17)  opens  with 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  45 

a  dirge  in  which  the  overthrow  of  Israel  is  represented 
as  accomplished  (1-3).  This  fate  is  well  merited,  since 
the  people  have  utterly  disregarded  the  demands  of 
Jehovah.  They  have  sought  him  by  means  of  a  ritual 
which  he  does  not  value;  on  the  other  hand,  they  have 
spumed  the  virtues  which  he  prizes  (4-10).  This  con- 
demnation is  followed  by  an  ascription  of  praise  to 
Jehovah,  to  remind  the  hearers  of  his  majesty,  and 
thus  to  impress  them  with  the  importance  of  heeding 
the  message.  They  are  apparently  incorrigible,  there- 
fore swift  judgment  will  overtake  them  (11-13) ;  never- 
theless sincere  repentance  may  result  in  the  salvation 
of  at  least  a  remnant  (14,  15).  But  the  prophet  seems 
to  realize  that  such  hope  is  vain;  at  any  rate,  he 
reiterates  the  message  of  doom  (16,  17). 

The  Terrors  of  the  Day  of  Jehovah,  5.  18-27.  The 
fourth  discourse  (5.  18-27)  speaks  of  the  darkness  and 
despair  of  the  day  of  Jehovah.  This  day  was  thought 
to  be  a  day  of  conflict  in  which  Jehovah  would 
manifest  himself  in  the  destruction  of  his  enemies  and 
the  exaltation  of  his  friends.  The  people  looked  upon 
themselves  as  the  friends  of  Jehovah;  hence  they  were 
yearning  for  the  coming  of  the  day  of  exaltation.  Upon 
these  mistaken  souls  Amos  pronounces  a  woe :  They  will 
be  sorely  disappointed,  for  it  will  prove  to  them  not  a 
day  of  exaltation  but  a  day  of  terror  and  disaster 
(18-20).  It  cannot  be  otherwise,  since  their  actions 
have  shown  them  to  be  enemies  of  Jehovah.  Their 
service  is  an  abomination  to  him,  because  it  is  not  in 
accord  with  his  requirements  (21-25).  -^s  a  result  the 
terrors  of  Jehovah  will  fall  upon  them  in  the  form  of 
exile  (26,  27). 

Woe  upon  the  Luxurious,  the  Self-confident,  and  the 


46       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Proud,  6.  1-14.  The  prophet  turns  once  more  to  the 
leaders  of  the  people,  who,  reveling  in  wealth  and 
luxury,  were  perfectly  content  with  the  present  state 
of  things,  and  were  completely  indifferent  to  the  ruin 
threatening  the  people  (6.  1-6).  Exile  will  be  their 
punishment  ( 7 ) .  The  whole  city  and  nation  will  be  given 
over  to  destruction,  because  the  inhabitants  have 
perverted  truth  and  righteousness  and  have  put  their 
trust  in  their  own  resources  (8-14). 

Three  Visions  of  Judgment,  7.  1-9.  With  chapter 
7  begins  the  third  main  division  of  the  Book  of  Amos. 
Its  distinctive  characteristic  is  the  presence  of  five 
visions,  by  means  of  which  the  prophet  seeks  to  en- 
force the  contents  of  the  discourses  in  the  preceding 
parts,  laying  special  emphasis  upon  the  certainty  and 
finality  of  the  judgment.  Two  visions — the  swarm 
of  locusts  and  the  devouring  fire — describe  a  calamity 
which  had  already  caused  much  suffering  and  was 
threatening  complete  destruction,  when  Jehovah  in  his 
mercy  averted  the  final  catastrophe  (7.  1-6).  The 
third  vision — the  master  builder  with  the  plumb  line — 
does  not  picture  the  calamity  itself,  but  portrays  Jeho- 
vah as  decreeing  the  utter  destruction  of  the  house  of 
Israel  (7-9). 

The  Antagonism  of  the  Chief  Priest,  7.  10-17.  The 
three  visions  are  followed  by  an  historical  section  (10- 
17),  in  which  Amos  narrates  how  the  announcement 
of  the  judgment  stirred  the  antagonism  of  the  chief 
priest  at  Beth-el,  who  attempted  to  drive  Amos  back 
to  Judah.  The  prophet  could  not  be  silenced;  he  justi- 
fied his  presence  b}^  an  appeal  to  the  call  he  received 
from  Jehovah,  and  repeated  his  threat,  adding  a  per- 
sonal woe  upon  the  chief  priest  and  his  family. 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  47 

Closing  Visions  and  Exhortations,  8.  i — 9.  10.    The 

fourth  vision — the  basket  of  summer  fruit — announces 
that  the  time  of  mercy  is  past ;  the  end  has  come  upon 
Israel  (8.  1-3).  To  this  vision  Amos  adds  fresh  de- 
nunciations of  Israel's  sins  and  announcements  of 
judgment  (4-14).  The  fifth  vision — the  smitten 
sanctuar>^ — differs  in  form  from  the  preceding  four, 
but  its  purpose  is  the  same,  to  make  clear  that  Jehovah 
is  determined  to  make  an  end  of  the  sinful  kingdom 
(9.  1-6).  The  prophet  combats  again  the  misappre- 
hension that  their  former  choice  by  Jehovah  can  be 
regarded  as  a  permanent  safeguard  (7,  8),  and  once 
more  he  predicts  judgment,  now  calling  special  atten- 
tion to  its  disciplinary  purpose,  and  promises  the  pres- 
ervation of  a  sound  kernel  (9,  10). 

Promises  of  a  Bright  Future,  9.  11-15.  The  book 
closes  with  promises  of  a  bright  future  to  this  faithful 
remnant.  The  dynasty  of  David  will  be  restored  to 
power  (11),  the  surrounding  nations  will  be  reconquered 
(12),  extraordinary  fertility  will  bless  the  soil  (13),  the 
exiles  will  be  restored  to  their  own  land,  there  to  live 
forever  in  prosperity  and  joy  (14,  15). 

THE  TEACHING   OF  AMOS 

The  Need  of  the  Eighth  Century.  Attention  has  been 
called  on  page  30  to  the  dangers  which  threatened  the 
religion  of  Jehovah  during  the  eighth  century  B.  C, 
and  to  the  manner  in  which  Amos  and  the  other  prophets 
of  that  period  sought  to  overcome  them.  The  funda- 
mental need  was  a  statement  or  restatement,  on  the 
one  hand,  of  the  true  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah; 
on  the  other,  of  the  proper  relation  between  Jehovah 
and   Israel,   as  also   between  Jehovah  and   the  other 


48       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

nations.  Amos  and  his  contemporaries  in  the  prophetic 
office  suppHed  this  demand.  The  teaching  of  Amos 
may  conveniently  be  summarized  under  two  heads: 
I.  The  prophet's  conception  of  Jehovah,  the  God  of 
Israel;  2.  The  prophet's  conception  of  Israel,  the 
people  of  Jehovah. 

I.  The  Prophet's  Conception  of  Jehovah. — Monothe- 
ism. Amos  is  a  monotheist.  He  believes  that  there 
is  only  one  true  God,  namely,  Jehovah,  whose  prophet 
he  knows  himself  to  be.  Though  the  dogma  of  mono- 
theism is  nowhere  taught,  the  tone  of  the  entire  book 
places  the  subject  beyond  doubt.  "No  one,"  says 
Marti,  "can  fail  to  observe  that  in  this  belief  of  Amos 
monotheism  is  present  in  essence  if  not  in  name." 

(i )  Personality.  Concerning  the  nature  and  character 
of  this  one  God,  Amos  teaches  that  he  is  a  person.  The 
God  of  Amos  is  capable  of  every  emotion,  volition,  and 
activity  of  which  a  person  is  capable.  He  swears  by 
himself  (6.  8;  compare  4.  2),  he  repents  (7.  3),  he  com- 
municates with  others  (3.  7),  he  issues  commands 
(9.  3,  4),  he  determines  upon  lines  of  action  (6.  8;  7.  3), 
he  hates  and  abhors  (5.  21,  22;  6.  8). 

(2)  Omnipotence.  The  omnipotence  of  Jehovah  may 
be  seen  in  the  acts  of  creation  (4.  13;  5.  8,  9;  9.  6),  as 
also  in  the  continuous  control  which  he  exercises  over 
all  the  forces  of  nature  (4.  6-1 1,  13;  5.  8;  8.  9;  9.  5,  6).  An 
even  stronger  proof  of  the  supreme  power  of  Jehovah 
is  the  fact  that  he  controls  the  nations  of  the  earth 
and  determines  their  destiny  (i.  3 — 2.  312.  9-16;  9.  7; 
etc.).  Amos's  conception  of  Jehovah's  infinite  power 
finds  expression  also  in  the  divine  titles  he  uses — "the 
Lord  Jehovah"  (twenty  times);  "Jehovah,  the  God  of 
hosts"   (4.   13;    5.   14,   15;    6.  8,   14;    compare  5.   27); 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  49 

"the  Lord  Jehovah  of  hosts"  (9.  5) ;  "the  Lord  Jehovah, 
the  God  of  hosts"  (3.  13) ;  "Jehovah,  the  God  of  hosts, 
the  Lord"  (5.  16). 

(3)  Omnipresence.  The  omnipresence  of  Jehovah 
is  at  least  implied  in  chapters  i  and  2,  and  is  unam- 
biguously taught  in  9.  2ff.,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
terrible  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  sublime  passages 
in  the  whole  book. 

(4)  Omniscience.  Amos  9.  2ff.  also  teaches  that  God 
knows  all  things.  He  needs  omniscience  to  discover 
the  hiding  place  of  the  fugitive  sinners,  and  without 
it  he  could  not  reveal  unto  man  his,  that  is,  man's, 
thought  (4.  13)- 

(5)  Righteousness.  Perhaps  the  most  important  ele- 
ment in  Amos's  teaching  concerning  the  character  of 
Jehovah  is  his  constant  emphasis  of  Jehovah's  righteous- 
ness. Jehovah  is  not  partial  to  Israel;  he  deals  with  all 
nations,  Israel  included,  according  to  ethical  principles 
(3.  I,  2;  7.  7-9;  8.  1-3;  9.  8;  etc.).  He  takes  no  delight 
in  their  superficial  and  external  worship.  His  demand 
is,  "Let  justice  roll  down  as  waters,  and  righteousness 
as  a  perennial  stream"  (5.  24;compare4.  4,  515.  21-23). 

(6)  Mercy.  Though  Amos  dwells  so  persistently  on 
the  righteousness  of  Jehovah,  and  thus  gives  to  his 
whole  message  a  tone  of  severity,  he  does  not  alto- 
gether forget  that  Jehovah  is  a  merciful  God.  True, 
he  does  not  emphasize  this  phase  of  the  divine  character 
as  does  his  younger  contemporary  Hosea ;  nevertheless, 
here  and  there  glimpses  of  it  may  be  had.  Twice  he 
dared  to  intercede  on  behalf  of  the  sinful  nation  (7.  2,  5), 
and  he  held  out  the  promise  that  under  certain  con- 
ditions Jehovah  might  be  gracious  unto  a  remnant  of 
Joseph  (5.  15). 


50       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

2.  Amos's  Conception  of  Israel. — (i)  Israel  the 
People  of  Jehovah.  The  prophet's  teaching  concern- 
ing Israel  is  a  reflection  of  or  a  deduction  from  his 
teaching  concerning  Jehovah.  Amos  is  thoroughly 
convinced  that,  though  Jehovah  sustains  vital  relations 
to  other  nations,  he  has  a  peculiar  interest  in  Israel — 
Israel  is  in  a  special  sense  the  people  of  Jehovah 
(2.  9,  10;   3.  I,  2). 

(2)  The  Divine  Ideal  for  Israel.  As  the  people  of 
Jehovah,  Israel  should  reflect  the  character  of  her 
God ;  otherwise  intimate  fellowship  between  the  two  is 
impossible  (3.  2;  5.  4,  24;   6.  14). 

(3)  Jehovah's  Revelations  to  Israel.  Jehovah  re- 
vealed himself  "in  divers  mamiers"  to  the  Israelites, 
in  order  that  they  might  know  his  will  and  do  it.  He 
did  so  preeminently  through  the  prophets  and  Nazirites 
(2.  II ;  3.  7),  through  the  law — to  Judah  (2.4),  through 
Amos  (3.  8;  7.  15),  and  through  the  acts  of  the  Divine 
Providence  (4.  6-1 1).  The  privileges  involved  in  these 
special  manifestations  brought  increased  responsibilities 
and  obligations  to  Israel. 

(4)  Israel's  Shortcomings.  Through  neglect  of  these 
responsibilities  and  obligations  Israel  fell  far  short  of 
Jehovah's  ideal  for  his  people.  From  beginning  to 
end  the  prophecy  abounds  in  pictures  of  Israel's  faith- 
lessness. Righteousness  and  justice  were  trampled 
under  foot  (5.  7),  the  poor  and  the  needy  were  oppressed 
(2.  6,  7;  3.  10;  5.  II,  12),  the  name  of  Jehovah  was 
dishonored  by  the  immoral  practices  connected  with 
the  worship  (2.  7,  8) ;  indeed,  the  whole  worship  was  an 
abomination  to  Jehovah,  because  it  was  not  offered  in 
the  right  spirit,  nor  was  it  backed  by  a  consistent  life 
(5-21-25). 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS  51 

(5)  TJie  Inevitable  Judgment.  The  righteousness  of 
Jehovah  demands  the  execution  of  judgment  upon  the 
sinful  kingdom  (2.  13-16;  3.  14,  15;  9.  8;  etc.)-  This 
judgment,  the  prophet  thinks,  will  take  the  form  of 
a  foreign  invasion  and  exile,  which  will  result  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  nation  Israel  (3.  11 ;  4.3;  5.27;  6.14). 

(6)  The  Salvation  of  a  Remnant  and  its  Future  Glory, 
From  the  judgment  a  faithful  remnant  will  escape 
(5.  15;  9.  9).  Around  this  remnant  center  the  hopes 
of  the  prophet  for  the  future.  It  will  form  the  nucleus 
of  the  new  kingdom  of  God,  whose  rulers  will  be  of  the 
dynasty  of  David,  which  will  be  restored  to  power.  The 
surrounding  nations  will  be  reconquered;  and  the  soil 
will  be  blessed  with  extraordinary  fertility,  so  that  the 
new  nation  may  dwell  in  peace  and  prosperity  forever 
(9.  11-15).  The  picture  of  the  future  glory  is  a  very 
simple  one,  to  be  enlarged  and  spiritualized  by  later 
prophets. 

Permanent  Lessons  of  the  Book  of  Amos.  Kirk- 
patrick  calls  attention  to  the  following  as  the  most  im- 
portant permanent  religious  and  moral  lessons  of  the 
Book  of  Amos:  (i)  Justice  between  man  and  man  is 
one  of  the  divine  foundations  of  society;  (2)  Privilege 
implies  responsibility ;  (3)  Failure  to  recognize  respon- 
sibility is  sure  to  bring  punishment;  (4)  Nations,  and, 
by  analogy,  individuals,  are  bound  to  live  up  to  the 
light  and  knowledge  granted  to  them;  (5)  The  most 
elaborate  worship  is  but  an  insult  to  God  when  offered 
by  those  who  have  no  mind  to  conform  to  his  demands. 


CHAPTER  IV 
HOSEA 

THE  HISTORTCAL  BACKGROUND  OF  HOSEA'S  ACTIVITY 

Date  of  Hosea.  A  few  years  after  the  withdrawal 
of  Amos  from  Israel  a  new  prophet  arose  to  continue 
his  work.  While  the  Book  of  Hosea  does  not  state  when 
Hosea's  ministry  began,  the  testimony  of  the  title, 
the  apparent  imminence  of  the  judgment  announced, 
and  internal  evidence  combine  to  show  that  his  pro- 
phetic activity  began  after  the  close  of  Amos's  ministry. 
Concerning  the  length  of  his  public  career,  i .  i  states  that 
he  prophesied  in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and 
Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and  in  the  days  of  Jeroboam, 
the  son  of  Joash,  king  of  Israel.  That  chapters  1-3  come 
from  the  days  of  Jeroboam  II  is  beyond  doubt,  and 
internal  evidence  makes  it  equally  certain  that  chapters 
4-14  reflect  the  troubled  period  subsequent  to  his  death. 
It  is  not  so  clear,  however,  that  he  continued  to  prophesy 
during  the  reigns  of  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah. 
His  silence  concerning  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Israel 
and  Damascus,  his  reference  to  Gilead  as  Israelite  ter- 
ritory, and  his  mention  of  Assyria  as  an  ally  of  Israel 
make  it  probable  that  Hosea  did  not  prophesy  during  or 
subsequent  to  the  invasion  of  Judah  in  735-734,  which 
caused  the  advance  of  Assyria  against  Israel,  which 
in  turn  led  to  the  loss  of  Gilead.  Consequently  the 
activity  of  Hosea  may  be  assigned  to  the  period  be- 
tween 750  and  735  B.  C. 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  53 

Political  Conditions  in  Israel.  During  these  years 
Israel  was  rapidly  drifting  to  its  doom.  The  situation 
remained  for  some  years  as  it  was  during  the  time  of 
Amos's  activity ;  but  with  the  death  of  Jeroboam  politi- 
cal conditions  changed.  The  reign  of  this  king  had 
been  a  long  one,  marked  by  successes  without  and 
prosperity  within;  but  the  dynasty  of  Jehu,  of  which 
Jeroboam  was  the  fourth  ruler,  did  not  satisfy  the 
eighth  century  prophets,  though  it  had  been  placed  upon 
the  throne  with  the  sanction  and  aid  of  the  prophetic 
order  (2  Kings  9,  10).  Amos  announced  the  overthrow 
of  the  "house  of  Jeroboam"  (7.  9),  and  almost  the  first 
words  in  the  Book  of  Hosea  announce  judgment  upon 
this  dynasty  (i.  4,  5  ;  the  reference  is  to  2  Kings  10.  11). 
The  threat  was  fulfilled  shortly  after  the  death  of 
Jeroboam.  Party  spirit,  no  longer  held  in  check  by  a 
strong  hand,  broke  out,  and  his^  joiL_aild_^UCcessor, 
Zechariah,  was  slain  in  a  conspiracy  after  a  reign  of 
only  six  months.  With  him  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  came 
to  an  end.  There  followed  a  period  of  anarchy  of  which 
Hosea  supplies  a  vivid  picture  (7.  3-7  ;  8.  4) .  Kings  came 
forward  in  rapid  succession,  and  the  external  policy  was 
one  of  weakness  and  vacillation.  Shallum,  the  murderer 
of  Zechariah,  was  overthrown  after  one  month  by 
Menahem,  who,  to  strengthen  his  position,  bought  the 
support  of  Tiglath-pileser  IV  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  15.  19, 
20 ;  compare  Hos.  8.9,  10).  At  the  same  time,  or  shortly 
after,  another  party  was  seeking  help  from  Egypt  (i  2 .  i ) . 
Menahem  died  a  natural  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Pekahiah,  who  after  two  years  was  assassinated 
by  Pekah  (2  Kings  15,  25).  The  new  king  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Rezin  of  Damascus,  and  together 
they  invaded  Judah  (2  Kings  16.  6;  Isa.  7.  1-3).  Pekah 


54       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

was  murdered  by  Hoshea  (2  Kings  15.  30),  with  the 
connivance  and  support  of  the  Assyrian  king,  in  734,  and 
Hoshea  became  the  last  king  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
Moral  and  Religious  Conditions.  Little  needs  to  be 
added  to  what  has  been  said  in  connection  with  Amos 
concerning  the  moral  and  religious  conditions  in  Israel. 
At  the  time  of  Hosea  the  excesses  had  become  even 
more  marked.  The  prophet  sums  up  his  indictments 
in  one  word,  "whoredom."  Israel,  the  spouse  of  Jeho- 
vah, had  proved  faithless  to  her  husband.  The  evi- 
dences of  her  unfaithfulness  were  seen  in  the  sphere 
of  religion,  of  ethics,  and  of  politics,  and  the  sins 
provoking  the  anger  of  Jehovah  and  of  his  prophet 
center  around  these  three  heads.  The  Israelites  were 
without  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  (4.  6 ;  5.4;  etc.) ;  as  a 
result  they  were  ignorant  concerning  the  real  require- 
ments of  Jehovah,  and  their  w^orship  was  not  acceptable 
to  him.  Nominally  they  paid  homage  to  Jehovah 
(5.  6 ;  6,  6fT.) ;  in  reality  they  honored  the  Baals,  that 
is,  the  gods  of  the  native  Canaanites.  This  illegitimate 
worship  called  forth  Hosea's  severest  and  most  persist- 
ent condemnation  (2.  2fT.;  4.  iiff.;  8.  4fT.;  9.  10;  10. 
iff. ;  13.  iff. ;  14.  1-3).  In  the  sphere  of  ethics  their  lack 
of  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  resulted  in  conduct  abso- 
lutely contrary  to  the  demands  of  Jehovah ;  immorali- 
ties, crimes,  and  vices  of  every  description  were  practiced 
openly  and  in  defiance  of  all  prophetic  exhortations  (4.1, 
2,  6ff.,  13,  18;  6.  8,  9;  7.  1-7;  10.  4,  9,  i2ff.).  In  the 
sphere  of  politics  the  faithlessness  manifested  itself  in  a 
twofold  manner:  (i)  in  rebellion  against  all  legitimate 
authority,  and  assassinations  of  various  kings  and 
princes  (7.  1-7;  8.  4;  13.  10,  11),  and  (2)  in  dependence 
upon  human  defenses  (8.  14;  10. 13;  14.  3)  and  foreign 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  55 

alliances  (5.  135  7.  8,  11-13;  8.  9;  12.  i;  14.  3;  com- 
pare 7.  16;  8.  13;  9.  3ff. ;  10.  6;  II.  11)  rather  than  upon 
the  power  of  Jehovah. 

THE  PERSONAL  LIFE  OF  HOSEA 

Home  of  Hosea.  Hosea  had  one  important  advan- 
tage over  his  predecessor.  Amos  was  a  native  of  Judah, 
sent  to  the  northern  kingdom  on  a  temporary  mission; 
Hosea  was  a  citizen  of  the  north,  bound  by  a  sympa- 
thetic patriotism  to  the  kingdom  whose  destruction  he 
was  commissioned  to  predict.  "In  every  sentence," 
says  Ewald,"  it  appears  that  Hosea  had  not  only 
visited  the  kingdom  of  Ephraim,  as  Amos  had  done, 
but  that  he  is  acquainted  with  it  from  the  depths  of 
his  heart,  and  follows  all  its  doings,  aims,  and  fortunes 
with  the  profound  feelings  gendered  of  such  a  sympathy 
as  is  conceivable  in  the  case  of  a  native  prophet  only." 

Personal  History  of  "the  Prophet.  Little  is  known 
of  the  prophet's  personal  history.  He  represents  him- 
self as  marrying  Gomer,  who  became  the  mother  of 
several  children,  to  whom  he  gave  names  symbolic  of 
the  destiny  of  his  people  (chapter  i).  This  Gomer 
proved  unfaithful  and  left  his  home,  but  in  the  end  was 
bought  back  by  Hosea  and  restored  to  his  home, 
though,  temporarily  at  least,  not  to  the  full  privileges 
of  wifehood  (3.  1-3).  Hosea  prophesied  for  a  number 
of  years.  A  Jewish  legend  states  that  he  died  in  Babylon,  / 
that  his  body  was  carried  to  Galilee  and  buried  in 
Safed,  northwest  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  on  the  highest 
point  in  that  region.  According  to  another  tradition  he 
was  a  native  of  Gilead  and  was  buried  there.  The  grave 
of  Nebi  Osha  (the  prophet  Hosea)  is  shown  near  es-Salt, 
a  few  miles  south  of  the  Jabbok. 


56       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Occupation.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  what  was 
the  occupation  of  Hosea.  The  attempt  has  been  made 
to  prove  that  he  belonged  to  the  priestly  class,  but  the 
evidence  is  not  conclusive.  Whatever  his  occupation, 
Hosea  was  a  keen  observer  of  the  life  about  him,  and 
he  reveals  a  remarkable  familiarity  with  the  past  history 
and  the  ancient  traditions  of  his  people.  To  judge  from 
the  images  and  comparisons  in  which  the  book  abounds 
it  would  seem  that  the  prophet's  home  was  in  the 
country  and  not  in  the  city. 

Hosea's  Marriage.  The  domestic  experience  of  Hosea 
played  an  important  part  in  the  preparation  of  Hosea 
for  his  prophetic  ministry  to  Israel.  Of  the  various 
interpretations  of  the  verses  dealing  with  Hosea's 
marriage  (i.  2,  3)  the  following  seems  the  most  natural, 
and  the  one  most  in  accord  with  the  language  of  the 
prophet.  Gomer  was  unstained  when  she  became  the 
wife  of  Hosea.  The  evil  tendencies  were  within  her, 
but  they  had  not  yet  manifested  themselves.  Hosea 
loved  her  dearly,  but  his  love  was  not  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  outbreak.  She  finally  abandoned  him  for 
her  paramours  or,  perhaps,  the  licentious  rites  con- 
nected with  the  worship  of  the  Baals. 

As  the  prophet,  his  heart  still  burning  with  tender 
love  for  his  faithless  spouse,  sat  and  pondered  over  his 
past  domestic  experience  he  came  to  see  that  even  this 
sad  occurrence  was  not  a  blind  chance,  but  in  accord 
with  Divine  Providence.  Jehovah  led  him  into  this  ex- 
perience in  order  to  teach  him  the  lesson  which  he  in 
turn  was  to  teach  Israel,  and  which  he  could  not  have 
learned  as  well  in  any  other  way.  At  the  time  he  did 
not  realize  the  significance  of  the  occurrence;  only 
gradually  did  it  dawn  upon  him  that  as  far  as  his  mes- 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  57 

sage  to  his  people  was  concerned  the  unhappy  alliance 
was  the  first  step  in  his  prophetic  career.  It  is  from  the 
vantage  point  of  this  later  recognition  that  Hosea 
describes,  in  i.  2,  3,  the  earlier  experience.  It  would  be 
wrong,  however,  to  assume  that  Hosea  was  not  a  prophet 
until  all  these  experiences  had  come  to  him.  He  must 
have  been  conscious  of  a  prophetic  commission  even 
before  the  birth  of  his  firstborn,  else  how  would  he  have 
come  to  give  him  the  symbolic  name?  Nevertheless, 
the  tone  of  the  entire  book  shows  that  his  own  personal 
domestic  experience  was  the  means  whereby  God  spoke 
to  him  and  supplied  him  with  his  prophetic  message  to 
Israel.  Therefore  Hosea  is  justified  in  calling  the  im-  _ 
pulse  to  marry  Gomer  the  beginning  of  his  prophetic  T^ 
ministry. 

The  experience  of  Hosea  in  thus  recognizing  at  a 
later  time  the  hand  of  God  in  events  already  past  is  not 
absolutely  unique,  for  it  often  happens  that  God's 
instruments  act  under  his  direction  without  being  con- 
scious that  they  are  thus  guided;  only  at  a  later  time 
their  eyes  are  opened  so  that  they  see  the  reality  of  the 
Divine  Providence.  If  anyone  should  ask  why  God 
laid  this  heavy  burden  upon  his  prophet,  reply  may  be 
made  that  it  appears  to  be  a  universal  law  of  this  sin- 
stricken  world  that  God  makes  perfect  through  suffering ; 
that  redemption  is  wrought  through  sacrifice. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  HOSEA 

The  Book  of  Hosea  contains  the  substance  of  the 
prophet's  earnest  and  persistent  appeals  by  which 
he  sought  to  bring  the  faithless  nation  back  to  its 
Divine  Master.  The  book  falls  naturally  into  two  well- 
marked  divisions,  chapters  1-3  and  4-14. 


58       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Hosea  and  Gomer,  i.  2-9;  3.  1-3.  The  first  division 
sets  forth  the  prophet's  marriage  and  gives  the  ap- 
phcation  of  the  story:  Jehovah's  love  and  Israel's 
faithlessness.  The  story  is  contained  in  i,  2-9  and 
3.  1-3,  while  I.  10 — 2.  23  and  3.  4,  5  give  the  exposition. 
The  prophet  relates  how,  at  the  divine  command,  he 
took  to  wife  Gomer,  the  daughter  of  Diblaim  (i.  2,  3). 
By  her  he  had  three  children,  to  whom  he  gave  names 
symbolic  of  some  of  the  truths  he  taught:  Jezreel, 
symbolizing  the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty  of  Jehu 
(4,  5),  Lo-ruhamah,  announcing  that  Jehovah  will 
have  no  more  mercy  upon  Israel  (6,  7),  and  Lo-ammi, 
symbolizing  the  utter  rejection  of  Israel  (8,  g).  In 
time  Gomer  left  her  home  to  give  herself  more  unre- 
servedly to  her  shameful  practices;  chapter  3.  2  seems 
to  imply  that  she  became  the  slave  concubine  of  an- 
other. But  Hosea  continued  to  love  her  and,  im- 
pelled by  love,  bought  her  ba^k,  though  for  a  while 
he  did  not  restore  her  to  the  full  privileges  of  wifehood 

(3-  1-3)- 
Jehovah   and   Israel,  i.   10 — 2.    23;  3.   4,   5.      This 

domestic  experience  is  presupposed  in  i.  10 — 2.  23  and 
3.  4,  5.  The  historical  figures  in  i.  1-9  and  3.  1-3,  the 
prophet,  his  wife,  and  his  children,  here  become  al- 
legorical figures.  Israel  is  the  adulterous  wife,  Jehovah 
the  deceived  but  still  loving  husband,  the  individual 
Israelites  are  the  children.  Some  of  these  have  re- 
mained free  from  the  sins  of  the  mother.  To  these 
faithful  individuals  Jehovah  addresses  himself,  urging 
them  to  attempt  the  restoration  of  the  faithless  wife  and 
mother,  Israel,  to  the  wronged  but  yearning  husband, 
Jehovah.  The  utterance  opens  with  a  description  ot 
Israel's  whoredom   (2.   2-5),  which  is  followed  by  an 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  59 

announcement  of  the  evil  consequences  of  the  faithless- 
ness (6-13);  it  closes  with  a  delineation  of  the  efforts 
to  be  made  by  Jehovah  for  the  purpose  of  winning  back 
the  faithless  wife,  and  of  the  glories  awaiting  her  when 
she  comes  to  her  senses  (14-23;  compare  i.  10 — 2.  i). 
The  promise  of  restoration  is  repeated  in  3.  5,  but 
before  Israel  can  enjoy  the  new  blessings  she  must  pass 
through  a  long  period  of  seclusion,  when  she  will  be 
deprived  of  all  her  religious  and  civil  institutions  (4). 

The  Second  Book  of  Hosea,  Chapters  4-14.  Chapters 
4-14,  sometimes  called  the  "Second  Book  of  Hosea," 
contain  the  substance  of  the  prophet's  discourses  dur- 
ing the  years  subsequent  to  the  death  of  Jeroboam 
II.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  trace  in  this  second 
division  a  definite  plan  of  arrangement,  though  fresh 
beginnings  may  be  noted  in  4.  i ;  5.  i ;  9.  i ;  11.  12  ;  13.  i ; 
14.  I.  From  beginning  to  end  the  prophet  has  in 
mind  the  hopeless  condition  of  his  people;  he  exhorts, 
laments,  warns,  pleads,  denounces,  promises — in  fact, 
uses  every  possible  means  of  persuasion — in  order  that 
he  may  win  back  the  people  to  a  pure  and  acceptable 
service  of  Jehovah. 

The  Nation's  Guilt,  Chapter  4.  This  section  opens 
with  a  solemn  summons  to  hear  the  indictment  brought 
against  the  people  by  Jehovah.  The  predominant  note 
in  chapter  4  is  the  nation's  guilt:  religiously  and  mor- 
ally the  people  are  hopelessly  corrupt.  In  verses  i-io 
the  moral  corruption  in  everyday  life  receives  special 
condemnation;  in  verses  11-19,  the  immoral  practices 
connected  with  the  religious  cult.  Both  sections  close 
with  announcements  of  judgment  (9,  10,  19).  In  con- 
nection with  the  general  condemnation  Hosea  ac- 
cuses the  priests  of    being  chiefly  responsible  for  the 


6o       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

lamentable  condition  of  the  people  (especially  4-8). 
They  have  failed  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  "law  of 
Jehovah." 

Universal  Corruption  and  the  Inevitable  Judg- 
ment, Chapter  5.  Chapters  5-8,  which  are  closely 
connected,  present  a  detailed  account  of  the  manner 
in  which  corruption  penetrated  the  entire  public  life 
and  affected  all  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest.  In- 
terspersed are  exhortations,  warnings,  and  threats  of 
inevitable  destruction.  Chapter  5  falls  naturally  into 
two  parts:  verses  1-7,  where  the  emphasis  is  upon 
guilt,  and  8-15,  which  deal  primarily  with  judgment. 
The  address  is  directed  against  (i)  the  priests,  (2)  the 
people,  and  (3)  the  king  and  his  courtiers.  It  is  not 
always  easy  to  say  which  of  these  receives  primary 
attention.  The  religious  and  civil  leaders  are  largely 
to  blame  for  present  conditions,  but  all  must  suffer 
the  consequences. 

Insincerity  an  Abomination  to  Jehovah,  Chapter  6. 
Chapter  5.  15  expresses  the  hope  that  Israel  will  yet 
return  to  Jehovah  and  seek  his  face.  This  hope  will  be 
realized.  Israel  will  return  (6.  1-3),  but  without  real, 
heartfelt  repentance.  In  the  mutual  exhortation  to 
return  there  is  not  one  expression  of  soitow  for  wrong- 
doing, only  anxiety  to  have  distress  and  calamity  re- 
moved. Therefore  Jehovah  is  not  favorably  im- 
pressed with  the  supplication.  His  reply  is  contained 
in  6.  4 — 8.  14.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  recognize 
any  distinct  break  throughout  this  reply.  The  whole 
is  a  severe  condemnation  of  the  people's  attitude 
toward  Jehovah.  Verse  4  may  be  regarded  as  the 
direct  reply.  Jehovah  perceives  that  the  sentiments 
expressed  in  1-3  do  not  come  from  the  heart.     But  if 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  6i 

all  he  has  done  for  his  people  in  the  past  has  failed  to 
lead  to  repentance,  what  more  can  he  do?  From  this 
question  he  passes  immediately  to  point  out  the  people's 
utter  misconception  of  the  divine  requirements  (5,  6), 
and  to  delineate  their  sinful  career;  the  corruption 
seems  incurable  (7-1 1 a). 
Moral    Degradation    and     Anarchy,    7.    1-7.    With 

6.  lib  begins  a  new  picture  of  the  moral  degradation 
and  the  resulting  anarchy.  The  mercy  of  Jehovah, 
manifesting  itself  in  his  willingness  to  remove  the  dis- 
tress, had  no  salutary  effect.  Gradually  their  wrongs 
have  surrounded  them  until  escape  seems  impossible; 
even  repentance  seems  out  of  the  question  (7,  i,  2), 
While  some  details  in  the  interpretation  of  verses  3-7 
are  uncertain,  the  general  drift  of  the  prophet's  argu- 
ment is  clear.  The  prophet  describes  in  vivid  colors 
the  corruption  that  pervades  the  whole  nation  from 
the  king  down,  and  shows  that  the  existing  anarchy 
is  the  inevitable  result  of  that  corruption.  He  sees 
adultery,  drunkenness,  conspiracy,  assassinations  every- 
where, not  one  redeeming  feature.  Jehovah  alone  can 
heal  the  disease,  but  no  one  calls  upon  him  (7). 

Appeal  to  Other  Nations  will   End   in  Destruction, 

7.  8-16.     Instead,  Israel  has  mingled  with  the  nations, 
there  to  learn  wisdom  and  find  help  (8).     Disaster  has 
been  the  result  (9,  10),  but  still  it  persists;   hither  and      i^^, 
thither  it  turns,  like  a  silly  dove  (11),  unaware  that  it 

is  becoming  entangled  in  a  net  from  which  there  can  be 
no  escape  (12).  Jehovah  at  one  time  expected  great 
things  from  his  children;  what  a  disappointment  they 
have  become  (i 3-1 6a)! 

Israel's  Rebellion  and  its  Consequences,  Chapter  8. 
Israel  has  proved  a  disappointment;    defiantly  it  per- 


62       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

sists  in  rebellion;  therefore  judgment  has  become  in- 
evitable; rapidly  it  is  approaching  (7.  i6b — 8.  3).  In 
Z>  verse  4  the  prophet  renews  his  attack  upon  Israel. 
The  political  revolutions  are  rebellions  against  Jehovah 
(4) ;  idolatry  is  an  abomination  to  him  (4-6) ;  they  must 
reap  what  they  have  sown  (7) ;  their  appeals  to  foreign 
nations  will  not  save  them  (8-10).  Once  more  he  con- 
demns their  religious  practices ;  then  the  section  closes 
with  a  threat  of  judgment  (11-14). 

Exile  the  Punishment  for  Religious  and  Moral 
Apostasy,  9.  1-9.  Chapter  9.  i  marks  a  new  beginning. 
The  prophet  beholds  the  rejoicing  of  the  people  at  har- 
vest time,  perhaps  at  a  joyous  religious  festival.  Rejoic- 
ing at  such  a  time  is  perfectly  natural ;  but,  judging  from 
chapter  2,  much  of  the  celebration,  though  nominally 
in  recognition  of  Jehovah's  goodness,  was  in  reality 
in  honor  of  the  Baalim.  This  the  prophet  cannot 
endure.  He  warns  the  people  not  to  be  too  exuberant 
(i),  for  the  occasions  of  rejoicing  w411  soon  cease.  On 
account  of  their  apostasy  Jehovah  will  withdraw  his 
blessings  (2);  yea,  they  will  be  carried  into  exile  (3), 
where,  upon  an  unclean  land,  joyful  religious  feasts  can 
no  longer  be  celebrated  (4,  5) ;  their  own  land  will  become 
a  wilderness  (6).  After  announcing  the  impending 
doom  the  prophet  points  out  once  more  the  moral 
and  religious  apostasy  responsible  for  the  judgment 

(7-9)- 
IsraePs  Apostasy  and  Punishment,  9.  10-17.    Three 

times  in  chapters  9-1 1  (9.  10;  10.  9;  11.  i)  Hosea  re- 
verts to  the  early  history  of  Israel  to  show  how  loving 
had  been  the  divine  care  and  how  persistent  Israel's 
apostasy  and  rebellion.  In  the  beginning  Israel  ap- 
peared to  Jehovah  like  a  desirable  fruit,  but  ere  long 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  63 

contact  with  the  Canaanitish  rehgion  caused  con- 
tamination, and  Israel  became  an  abomination  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah  (10).  In  consequence,  awful  judg- 
ments will  come  (11-17).  The  forai  of  the  expected 
judgments  is  not  quite  clear. 

The  Imminent  Destruction,  10.  1-8.  Hosea  re- 
verts to  Israel's  guilt  once  more  in  chapter  10.  Using 
the  figure  of  a  luxuriant  vine,  he  describes  Israel's  ex- 
ternal prosperity ;  it  increased  steadily,  but  the  greater 
the  prosperity,  the  more  flagrant  the  moral  and  re- 
ligious corruption  (i,  2).  Therefore  altars,  idols,  and 
pillars  shall  be  broken  down,  the  calves  of  Samaria 
shall  be  carried  to  Assyria,  priests  and  people  shall  be 
in  terror  and  shall  mourn  (2-6) ;  even  the  king  shall 
be  cut  off  (7).  The  high  places  shall  be  destroyed, 
thorns  and  thistles  shall  grow  over  them,  and  in  terror 
the  people  shall  cry  for  the  mountains  and  hills  to  fall 
upon  them  (8). 

Israel's  Persistence  in  Rebellion,  10.  9-15.  With 
verse  9  the  prophet  begins  a  new  presentation  of  Israel's 
guilt.  In  the  very  beginning  a  great  crime  darkened 
their  history  (9) ;  from  that  time  on  they  have  re- 
sisted every  effort  to  lead  them  into  a  higher  life; 
hence  death  and  destruction  await  them  (9-1 1).  The 
announcement  of  judgment  is  interrupted  by  an 
exhortation  to  repentance  (12),  which  immediately 
changes  again  into  a  threat  (13-15). 

Jehovah's  Love  for  the  Prodigal  Israel,  Chapter  11. 
Chapter  1 1  traces  the  father's  love  for  the  prodigal  son 
in  the  history  of  Israel.  The  prophet  points  out  how 
great,  strong,  and  tender  has  been  the  divine  love 
(i,  3,  4),  and  how  unappreciative  and  ungrateful  the 
chosen  people  (2,  7);    hence  justice  demands  the  ex- 


54      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

ecution  of  judgment  (5,  6).  But  Israel  is  still  the  son  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  divine  compassion  goes  out  for  the 
prodigal  (8) ;  therefore  the  punishment  will  be  tempered 
by  mercy,  and  after  it  has  accomplished  its  disciplinary 
purpose  Israel  will  be  restored  to  the  divine  favor 
(9-1 1). 

Israel's  Faithlessness  and  Ingratitude,  Chapter  12. 
Chapter  11.  12  (Hebrew,  12.  i)  is  closely  connected 
with  chapter  12.  Israel  proved  false  to  Jehovah  when 
it  entered  into  covenants  with  foreign  nations  (11.  12; 

12.  i);  therefore  the  anger  of  Jehovah  is  aroused  (2). 
Three  incidents  in  the  history  of  the  patriarch  Jacob  are 
mentioned  to  bring  out  more  distinctly  the  contrast 
between  the  ancestor  so  anxious  for  the  divine  blessing 
and  the  descendants  so  indifferent  to  Jehovah  (3-5). 
If  only  they  would  turn  to  the  God  of  Jacob,  he  would 
have  mercy  upon  them  (6).  Their  only  ambition  has 
been  to  accumulate  wealth,  and  shameful  are  the  means 
by  which  they  have  sought  to  attain  it  (7).  They  glory 
in  their  success  (8),  but  it  shall  avail  them  nothing,  for 
Jehovah  is  about  to  drive  Israel  back  into  the  desert  (9). 
Persistent  have  been  the  efforts  on  the  part  of  Jehovah 
to  prevent  the  judgment  (10) ;  therefore  no  one  can  be 
blamed  but  the  people  (11).  By  a  comparison  of  the 
experiences  of  the  nation  with  those  of  Jacob  in  Aram 
the  prophet  seeks  to  show  what  great  things  Jehovah 
has  done  for  the  people,  and  how  the  divine  love  was 
met  with  persistent  ingratitude  and  provocation;  in 
view  of  this  the  sentence  must  stand  (12-14). 

Israel  has  Signed   its  Own  Death  Warrant,  Chapter 

13.  Chapter  13  contains  one  of  the  most  comprehen- 
sive and  powerful  discourses  in  the  book.  It  opens  with 
a  reference  to  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  which  in  the  be- 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  65 

ginning  occupied  a  position  of  prominence  in  the  nation, 
but  signed  its  own  death  warrant  when  it  apostatized 
from  Jehovah  (i).  From  this  well-known  example 
Israel  should  have  learned  its  lesson,  but  it  failed  to  do 
so;  it  persisted  in  shameless  idolatry,  therefore  it  will 
vanish  like  chaff  before  the  whirlwind  (2,  3).  The  re- 
bellious attitude,  the  prophet  continues,  is  unintelligible, 
since  the  God  whom  they  rejected  is  the  God  who 
led  them  from  the  time  of  the  Exodus.  Strange  to  say, 
the  more  Jehovah  prospered  them,  the  more  arrogant 
they  became,  the  more  forgetful  of  Jehovah;  hence 
he  will  devour  them  like  a  lion  (4-8).  By  rebelling 
against  Jehovah  Israel  courted  destruction,  which  is 
now  inevitable ;  no  one  can  prevent  it,  Jehovah  himself 
can  show  mercy  no  longer  (9-14).  The  discourse 
closes  with  a  threat  of  utter  destruction  (15,  16). 

Israel's  Conversion  and  the  Restoration  of  the 
Divine  Favor,  Chapter  14.  Chapter  14  is  permeated 
by  a  spirit  different  from  that  of  the  preceding  chapters ; 
denunciation  gives  place  to  promise.  The  prophet 
exhorts  Israel  to  return  to  Jehovah  in  humility  and 
sorrow  (i,  2a).  He  puts  upon  the  lips  of  the  Israelites 
words  expressive  of  deepest  remorse,  and  of  an  earnest 
determination  to  remain  forever  loyal  to  Jehovah 
(2b,  3).  To  their  longing  cry  Jehovah  responds  that  he 
will  graciously  pardon  and  shower  upon  the  God-fear- 
ing people  blessings  hitherto  unknown  (4-8).  Verse  9 
stands  by  itself  as  an  epilogue  to  the  w^hole  book.  Who- 
ever desires  to  become  wise  and  prudent,  let  him  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  oracles  of  Hosea ;  from  them 
he  may  learn  that  the  way  of  Jehovah  is  right,  and  that 
the  destiny  of  men  is  determined  by  their  attitude  to- 
ward the  divine  will. 


66  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HOSEA 

The  message  of  Hosea  is  very  comprehensive,  touch- 
ing upon  social  and  political  questions  as  well  as  upon 
the  moral  and  religious  situation,  and  yet  the  principles 
underlying  his  discourses  are  few  and  easily  discov- 
ered. 

The  Nature  and  Character  of  Jehovah.  Funda- 
mental in  the  teaching  of  the  prophet  is  his  conception 
of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah.  He  considers  a 
lack  of  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  responsible  for  the  cor- 
ruption of  Israel.  Had  they  possessed  a  proper  knowl- 
edge of  him,  the  present  corruption  would  have  been  im- 
possible; and  by  imparting  this  knowledge  he  hopes 
to  bring  about  a  moral  transformation. 

(i)  Monotheism.  Like  Amos,  Hosea  is  a  monotheist. 
There  is  but  one  God,  and  he  is  the  God  of  Israel, 
who  controls  other  nations  as  well  (2,  5fif. ;  8.  4!!. ;  13. 
2;  14.3). 

(2)  Omnipotence.  If  Jehovah  is  the  only  true  God, 
the  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  determiner  of  the 
destinies  of  the  nations,  it  follows  that  he  is  a  God  of 
supreme  power,  of  omnipotence.  There  are,  however, 
no  passages  in  Hosea'^^uch  as  are  found  in  Amos  (4.  13 ; 
5.  8,  9;  9.  5,  6),  calling  attention  to  this  omnipotence; 
Hosea  assumes  it. 

(3)  Righteousness.  A  most  important  question  was 
how  Jehovah  would  use  this  power  in  dealing  with 
Israel  and  the  other  nations.  Here  again  Hosea  agrees 
with  Amos  in  portraying  Jehovah  as  a  holy  and  right- 
eous God,  the  use  of  whose  power  is  determined  by 
ethical  considerations.  Both  prophets  teach  that 
Jehovah  deals  with  the  nations  of  the  earth,  Israel  in- 
cluded,  according  to  their  attitude  toward  him;    he 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  67 

will  always  punish  sin,  even  in  Israel;  righteousness 
alone  can  win  his  favor  (9.  9;  8.  13). 

(4)  God  is  Love.  A  fourth  and,  perhaps,  the  dis- 
tinguishing element  in  Hosea's  conception  of  Jehovah 
is  the  thought  that  God  is  love.  This  thought  colors 
Hosea's  teachings  from  beginning  to  end.  A  favorite 
expression  of  Hosea  is  "loving-kindness."  This  element 
is  not  entirely  absent  from  Amos,  though  the  latter 
never  uses  the  former's  favorite  word;  nevertheless  to 
Amos  Jehovah  is  primarily  the  God  of  righteousness. 
Amos  thinks  of  him  primarily  as  king  and  judge,  Hosea 
as  husband  and  father,  with  a  love  such  as  a  hus- 
band may  feel  for  his  wife,  and  such  as  a  father  may 
treasure  for  his  son.  In  chapters  1-3  the  sin  of  Israel 
is  represented  as  "whoredom"  (i.  2;  2.  5,  8);  but  God 
has  not  forsaken  his  faithless  spouse,  he  loves  her  as 
much  as  ever,  and  by  the  manifestation  of  his  love  he 
will  win  her  back  into  permanent  heart  union  (2.  19,  20). 
The  greater  part  of  chapters  4-14  presents  a  different 
picture.  Jehovah  is  the  father,  Israel  is  the  prodigal 
son ;  the  loving  father  seeks  earnestly  to  save  the  wan- 
derer (9.  I,  8;  compare  6.  4). 

The  Covenant  between  Jehovah  and  Israel.  Closely 
connected  with  and  dependent  upon  Hosea's  conception 
of  Jehovah's  character  is  his  conception  of  Israel's  re- 
lation to  Jehovah  and  of  the  service  acceptable  to  him, 
Hosea  from  beginning  to  end  holds  fast  to  the  con- 
viction that  Israel  is  in  a  peculiar  sense  the  people  of 
Jehovah.  It  has  become  such  through  the  choice  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  union  was  cemented  by  a  national 
covenant,  made  at  the  very  beginning  of  Israel's  history, 
that  is,  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (9.  10;  11.  1-4;  12.9; 
13.  4).    The  intimacy  of  this  covenant  relation  is  de- 


68       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

scribed  under  the  two  figures  of  marriage  (chapters  1-3) 
and  filial  relation  (11.  i;  compare  Exod.  4.  22).  A 
covenant  always  involves  mutual  obligations.  The 
obligation  taken  upon  himself  by  Jehovah  was  to 
look  after  the  temporal  and  spiritual  needs  of  his 
people;  this  Jehovah  has  carefully  done  throughout 
Israel's  entire  history.  He  has  supplied  the  tem- 
poral wants  (2.  8;  10.  i,  11;  12.  8;  13.  4-6),  and  he 
has  done  his  best  to  supply  their  spiritual  needs.  By 
the  voice  of  living  prophecy  and  the  words  of  law  he 
has  sought  to  teach  and  direct  them  (11.  1-4;  7.  15; 
8. 12  ;  12.  10). 

Israel's  Faithlessness  to  the  Covenant.  But,  alas, 
Israel  has  transgressed  the  covenant  (6.  7;  8.  i).  Its 
obligations  may  be  summed  up  in  one  word,  "faithful- 
ness"; that  is,  loyalty  to  the  husband,  obedience  to  the 
father,  Israel's  transgression  also  may  be  summed  up 
in  one  word,  "faithlessness":  the  wife  followed  after 
paramours  (2.  5);  the  son  disregarded  the  will  of  the 
father  as  revealed  by  the  prophets  and  in  the  law. 
Passages  such  as4,  i;  6.6;  10.  12;  12.6  call  attention 
to  the  principal  requirements,  obedience  to  which  was 
Israel's  duty.  Every  one  of  these  has  been  willfully 
transgressed  by  the  nation  from  the  beginning  of  its 
history  until  the  prophet's  days  (9.  10;  10.  9;  13.  2). 
Israel  having  thus  persistently  disregarded  the  cove- 
nant, Jehovah  is  compelled  to  set  it  aside :  "I  will  drive 
them  out  of  my  house ;  I  will  love  them  no  more"  (9.  151 
compare  2.   g?l.). 

The  Service  Acceptable  to  Jehovah.    Concerning  the 

service  of  Jehovah  the  popular  conception  during  the 

eighth  century  seems  to  have  been  that  the  bringing 

"^      of  offerings  and  sacrifices  met  all  religious  requirements. 


p 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  69 

As  a  result  the  service  of  God  came  to  be  regarded  as  a 
purely  external  and  formal  thing.  Against  this  mis- 
apprehension Hosea  boldly  raised  his  voice,  "I  desire 
goodness,  and  not  sacrifice;  and  the  knowledge  of  God  '•^C^^ 
more  than  burnt  offerings"  (6.  6;  compare  5.  6).  The 
ceremonial  was  only  a  means  to  an  end,  and  therefore 
secondary ;  even  at  its  best  it  could  never  take  the  place 
of  pure  and  undefiled  religion;  if  it  ever  displaced  the 
weightier  matters  it  became  an  abomination.  In  order 
to  secure  the  divine  approbation  it  must  be  backed  by  a 
right  spirit  and  a  pure  life.  This  principle  needed  to 
be  emphasized  by  Hosea  the  more  strongly  because  in 
his  days  the  ceremonial  was  far  from  being  at  its  best; 
the  religious  celebrations  were  accompanied  by  all 
manner  of  excesses  (4.  i2ff. ;  6.  yff.)-  It  were  better  to 
abolish  sacrifice  than  to  practice  these  things  in  the 
name  of  religion.  Still  worse,  true  Jehovah  worship 
was  unknown;  it  had  become  mixed  with  Canaanitish 
elements;  in  reality  it  was  worship  of  the  Baalim,  the 
godsof  thenativeCanaanites  (2.  5ff. ;  4.  i2ff. ;  8.  4ff. ;  9. 
9 ;  13.2).    Such  insult  Jehovah  could  not  endure  (2,  12, 

13)- 

Promises  of  a  Future  Restoration.  Other  charac- 
teristic points  in  the  prophet's  teaching  are  connected 
with  his  promises  of  restoration.  Judgment  had  be- 
come inevitable;  the  religious,  moral,  and  political 
apostasy  of  Israel  made  it  incumbent  upon  Jehovah 
to  vindicate  himself  in  order  that  true  religion  might  not 
be  lost  to  the  world.  But  his  love  is  unquenchable; 
in  wrath  he  will  remember  mercy.  The  nation  must 
die, -but  it  will  live  again. 

(i)  The  Reestablishment  of  a  Fellowship  of  Life 
and  Love  with  Jehovah.     Hosea,  like  the  other  proph- 


70       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

ets,  pictures  the  restoration  in  the  brightest  colors. 
Amos  had  described  the  era  subsequent  to  the  restora- 
tion as  one  of  extraordinary  fertihty  and  prosperity 
(9.  13);  Hosea  expresses  a  similar  hope  (2.  21,  22;  14. 
5-8).  But  this  temporal  prosperity  is  not  the  supreme 
goal  of  our  prophet's  aspirations;  more  important  to 
him  is  the  reestablishment  of  a  fellowship  of  life  and 
love  with  Jehovah,  a  fellowship  that  will  make  it 
possible  for  the  divine  purpose  concerning  Israel  to 
be  completely  realized  (2.  14,  19,  20;  14.  1-3;  compare 
6.  1-3). 

(2)  Repentance  a  Condition  of  Restoration.  An- 
other truth  emphasized  by  Hosea  more  than  by  Amos  is 
the  necessity  of  sincere,  heartfelt  repentance  as  a  con- 
dition of  restoration.  "Hosea  may  be  accurately  styled 
the  first  preacher  of  repentance,  yet  so  thoroughly  did  he 
deal  with  this  subject  of  eternal  interest  to  the  human 
heart  that  between  him  and  ourselves  almost  no  teacher 
has  increased  the  insight  with  w^hich  it  has  been  ex- 
amined or  the  passion  with  which  it  ought  to  be  en- 
forced." But  whereas  with  us  repentance,  as,  indeed, 
every  religious  experience,  is  individual,  with  the 
prophet  it  was  national.  The  individual  element  in 
religion  did  not  receive  proper  emphasis  until  about 
a  century  and  a  half  after  the  time  of  Hosea.  He 
considered  repentance  to  imply  the  recognition  that 
all  sin  w^as  committed  against  God,  a  deep  sorrow  for 
wrongdoing,  and  an  earnest  determination  to  live  hence- 
forth in  a  manner  acceptable  to  God  (14.  1-3).  Sham 
repentance  Jehovah  despises  (6.  4ff.). 
J  (3)  Hosea's  Vision  Limited  to  Israel.     When  Hosea 

describes  the  glories  of  the  future  he  confines  himself  to 
the  fortunes  of  the  chosen  people„    Some  of  the  prophets 


THE  PROPHET  HOSEA  yi 

expect  the  subjugation  of  the  outside  nations  by  the 
redeemed  Israel,  some  their  destruction  by  Jehovah 
himself,  others  anticipate  their  conversion.  Hosea  is 
silent  concerning  their  destiny. 

(4)  The  Messianic  King.  Another  feature  demand- 
ing attention  is  the  personal  element  in  his  Messianic 
hope.  Amos,  without  referring  to  an  individual  Mes- 
sianic king,  announced  that  the  future  glory  would 
center  around  the  dynasty  of  David  (9 .  11);  Hosea 
declared  that  the  north  and  the  south  would  be  reunited 
under  one  head  (i.  11),  and  again,  "They  shall  seek.  .  .  . 
David  their  king"  (3.  5).  That  these  passages  refer  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  cannot  be 
doubted;  but  commentators  are  not  agreed  as  to 
whether  the  prophet  had  in  mind  a  person,  a  second 
David  (Jer.30.9;  Ezek.24.  23,  24;  37.  24,  25),  or  whether 
"David"  is  equivalent  to  "house  (dynasty)  of  David" 
(Amos  9 .  11).  The  references  are  perhaps  not  numerous 
enough  to  put  the  interpretation  beyond  question,  yet 
it  would  seem  that  the  personal  view  is  the  more 
natural.  If  so,  Hosea  is  the  first  prophet  to  mention  the 
ideal  ruler  in  whom  center  the  hopes  and  anticipations 
of  later  generations. 

Failure  of  Amos  and  Hosea  to  Save  Israel.  Amos 
and  Hosea  tried  earnestly  to  prevent  the  downfall  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  but  in  vain.  The  vacillating 
policy  of  the  court  was  bound  to  arouse  the  wrath 
of  Assyria,  and  when  finally  in  72=;  B.  C.  an  alliance 
was  made  with  Egypt,  the  Assyrian  king,  Shalmaneser 
IV,  dispatched  an  army  into  Israel.  The  king  was 
captured,  the  country  overrun,  and  the  capital  be- 
sieged. After  three  years,  in  the  closing  days  of 
722  or  the   opening  days  of  721,    Samaria  fell,   soon 


72       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

after  the  accession  of  Sargon  II,  the  successor  of 
Shahnaneser.  With  the  fall  of  Samaria  the  northern 
kingdom  disappeared  from  the  scene  of  action.  The 
fate  of  Jehovah  religion  now  rested  with  the  kingdom 
in  the  south. 


CHAPTER  V 
ISAIAH 

JUDAH  DURING  THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY  B,  C. 

The  Political  Situation.  The  political,  social,  moral, 
and  religious  conditions  in  Judah  during  the  activity 
of  Isaiah  and  his  younger  contemporary  Micah  were 
essentially  the  same  as  in  Israel  during  the  ministry  of 
Amos  and  Hosea,  Uzziah  became  king  of  Judah  about 
789.  The  Book  of  Kings  says  little  concerning  his 
reign.  The  Chronicler  furnishes  more  complete  in- 
formation. Combining  the  accounts  of  the  two,  we 
learn  that  Uzziah,  who  died  between  740  and  736,  left 
to  his  son  Jotham  a  kingdom  enjoying  a  great  measure 
of  external  prosperity. 

Wars  of  Uzziah.  While  Jeroboam  II  was  extending 
the  borders  of  Israel  in  the  north  Uzziah  was  strengthen- 
ing the  kingdom  of  Judah  in  the  south.  He  waged 
successful  wars  against  the  Philistines  and  annexed 
part  of  their  territory  to  his  own.  The  Ammonites  and 
Edomites  were  his  vassals.  He  fortified  Jeioisalem 
and  other  cities,  reorganized  the  army,  and  stocked  the 
arsenals  with  ammunition  of  war. 

Development  of  the  Internal  Resources.  In  ad- 
dition, he  was  not  unmindful  of  the  arts  of  peace.  He 
developed  very  extensively  the  natural  resources  of 
the  country'.  Being  a  lover  of  agriculture,  he  possessed 
many  fields  which  were  carefully  tilled;  watchtowers 
were  erected  for  the  protection  of  the  king's  cattle,  and 

73 


74       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

cisterns  were  dug  for  the  collection  and  retention  of 
the  winter  rains. 

Revival  of  Commerce.  Uzziah  was  also  interested 
in  commerce.  He  rebuilt  the  port  of  Elath  on  the 
eastern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  by  which  foreign  commerce 
might  find  its  way  into  Judah.  Sela,  which  had  been 
captured  by  the  k'ng's  father,  Amaziah,  commanded 
the  trade  route  to  southern  Arabia.  All  this  brought 
to  Judah  a  prosperity  unequaled  since  the  days  of 
David  and  Solomon. 

The  Reigns  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz.  Uzziah  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham,  who  continued  his  fa- 
ther's polic}^  Jotham's  independent  reign— he  had  been 
coregent  with  his  father  for  some  years  (2  Kings  15.  5) — 
was  very  brief.  Toward  its  close  Judah  was  threatened 
with  an  invasion  by  the  allied  forces  of  Damascus  and 
Israel.  The  real  crisis,  however,  did  not  come  until  he 
had  been  succeeded  by  his  son  Ahaz.  At  first  the  hostile 
armies  were  successful,  and  "the  heart  of  the  king  trem- 
bled, and  the  heart  of  his  people,  as  the  trees  of  the 
forest  tremble  with  the  wind"  (Isa.  7.  2).  In  despair 
Ahaz,  against  the  protest  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  ap- 
pealed for  assistance  to  Tiglath-pileser  IV,  of  Assyria. 
The  Assyrians  advanced  with  great  rapidity,  and  the 
two  nations  were  severely  punished.  Judah  was  saved, 
but  at  the  cost  of  her  national  independence;  hence- 
forth she  became  a  vassal  of  the  Assyrian  king. 
During  the  remainder  of  his  reign  Ahaz  seems  to  have 
continued  loyal  to  Assyria. 

The  Reign  of  Hezekiah.  During  the  early  years  of 
Hezekiah  Judah  kept  out  of  difficulties  b}^  quietly  pay- 
ing tribute.  The  fall  of  Samaria  in  722-721  made  an 
impression  that  was  not  soon  forgotten,  and  this  im- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  75 

pression  became  intensified  when  in  720  Sargon  II, 
king  of  Assyria,  defeated  an  Egyptian  amiy  near 
Raphia,  on  the  borders  of  Egypt.  Nevertheless,  the 
states  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  bore 
impatiently  the  Assyrian  yoke.  As  early  as  7 1 1  Judah 
came  near  being  involved  in  a  revolt  against  Sargon. 
The  death  of  the  latter  in  705  was  the  signal  for  up- 
risings throughout  the  empire.  Merodach-baladan 
made  himself  again  king  of  Babylon,  and  he  succeeded 
in  stirring  up  rebellion  in  the  west,  in  which  Judah 
joined.  Sennacherib,  the  successor  of  Sargon,  was  com- 
pelled to  spend  several  years  in  the  east,  in  order  to 
quell  disturbances  there;  but  in  702-701  he  marched 
westward.  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  other  states  fell  before 
him,  Judah  was  overrun  (2  Kings  18.  13),  Hezekiah 
was  shut  up  in  Jerusalem  "like  a  bird  in  a  cage,"  and 
the  fall  of  the  city  was  confidently  expected.  It  was 
at  this  point  that  a  Divine  Providence  compelled 
Sennacherib  to  raise  the  siege  of  the  city  and  return 
to  Nineveh.  Jerusalem  was  saved.  Little  more  is 
known  of  events  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah;  even  the 
year  of  his  death  is  uncertain;  he  died  sometime  be- 
tween 697  and  686  B.  C. 

MORAL,  SOCIAL,  AND  RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 

Moral  and  Social  Conditions.  Socially  and  morally 
Judah  presented  a  dark  picture  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighth  century.  Conditions  are  pictured  most 
vividly  in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Micah,  the  Book 
of  Kings  dealing  almost  exclusively  with  political  events. 
Of  the  two  prophets  Isaiah  views  the  situation  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  patrician,  Micah  from  that  of  the 
humble  peasant  of  the  country. 


76      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

A  vivid  description  of  moral  and  social  conditions  is 
found  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Isaiah.  After  a  general 
denunciation,  by  means  of  a  parable,  of  evil  and  wrong- 
doing, the  prophet  proceeds  to  point  out  in  detail  the 
most  heinous  crimes  (8-24).  Foremost  among  the  social 
evils  was  the  greed  of  the  nobles,  manifesting  itself  in 
the  attempts  to  build  up  large  estates  by  forcibly  eject- 
ing the  smaller  property  holders  (compare  also  Mic. 
2.  I,  2).  The  judges  were  quite  willing  to  assist  their 
powerful  friends  in  robbing  the  weak  (Mic.  3.  11); 
the  poor  widows  and  orphans,  who  were  without  de- 
fenders, were  cruelly  robbed  and  plundered,  and  even 
sold  into  slavery  (Mic.  2.  9;  Isa.  i.  23;  5.  23).  The 
common  people  were  oppressed  by  excessive  taxation, 
that  the  magnificent  palaces  of  the  capital  might  be 
erected  (Mic.  3.  10).  Every  man's  hand  seems  to  have 
been  against  his  neighbor;  even  the  most  sacred  rela- 
tions of  life  were  disregarded  (Mic.  7.  5,  6;  Isa.  3.  iff.). 

Responsibility  of  the  Nobles.  The  nobles  were 
chiefly  to  blame  for  the  awful  social  and  moral  cor- 
ruption. Micah  describes  them  as  cannibals  "who  tear 
the  flesh  of  the  people  from  their  bones  and  devour  it" 
(3.  2,  3).  Isaiah  does  not  spare  them:  "They  that  lead 
Judah  cause  them  to  err,  the  spoil  of  the  poor  is  in  their 
houses;  they  crush  my  people.  .  .  .  The  princes  are 
companions  of  thieves,  every  one  loveth  bribes  and 
chaseth  after  fees,  but  hath  no  regard  for  the  cause  of  the 
widow  and  of  the  fatherless"  (3.  12-15;  i.  23).  The 
greed  and  rapacity  of  the  nobles  knew  no  limits;  like 
highway  robbers  they  pounced  upon  passers-by  and 
stripped  off  their  garments  (Mic.  2.8);  helpless  women 
and  children  were  their  special  prey.  Under  the  guise 
of  the  law  decisions  were  given  in  favor  of  the  one 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  77 

offering  the  largest  bribe.  The  moral  and  social  con- 
ditions in  Judah  at  this  time  could  hardly  have  been 
worse. 

Religious  Conditions.  The  pictures  of  the  religious 
life  drawn  by  the  two  prophets  are  equally  dark. 
Religion  had  become  a  matter  of  form.  Ceremonial 
observances  were  thought  to  meet  all  religious  require- 
ments, and,  as  in  Israel,  the  misapprehension  was  wide- 
spread that,  as  long  as  the  external  acts  of  worship 
were  scrupulously  performed,  the  people  were  entitled 
to  the  divine  favor  and  protection.  "Jehovah  the  God 
of  hosts  is  with  us"  was  the  favorite  watchword;  and 
the  false  notion  implied  in  it  seems  to  have  found  en- 
couragement even  among  the  religious  leaders  (Mic. 
3.  11).  In  addition  to  this  perverted  Jehovah  worship 
idolatry  w^as  quite  common  (Isa.  2.  8).  Ahaz  sought 
to  please  his  Assyrian  master  by  introducing  foreign 
elements  into  the  temple  worship  (2  Kings  16.  loff.). 
Hezekiah,  it  is  true,  sought  to  bring  about  a  religious 
reformation,  but  it  was  hardly  as  sweeping  as  2  Kings 
18.  4  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  to  indicate,  for  in  the 
days  of  Josiah,  about  a  century  later,  there  were  still 
found  undisturbed  high  places  reared  by  Solomon  in  or 
near  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  23.  13). 

THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH 

Isaiah  a  King  Among  Prophets.  Amid  the  con- 
ditions described  the  task  of  a  prophet  of  Jehovah 
was  not  an  easy  one.  But  when  the  need  is  greatest  God 
is  nearest;  and  in  every  crisis  in  Hebrew  history  he 
raised  up  a  man  or  men  capable  of  coping  with  its 
problems  and  perplexities.  The  eighth  century  crisis  in 
Judah  brought  to  the  front  Isaiah,  who,  after  Moses. 


78       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

was  the  greatest  prophet  of  the  Hebrews.  The  per- 
sonaHty  of  Isaiah  was  such  as  to  fit  him  for  the  mighty- 
tasks  before  him.  He  was  not  a  "pale-faced  ascetic 
or  a  shrinking  sentimentaHst,"  he  was  a  full-blooded 
man,  a  man  of  high  mettle,  who  found  it  quite  consist- 
ent with  lowliness  to  pour  contempt  upon  a  weak, 
vacillating  king,  to  fling  burning  scorn  against  mocking 
skeptics,  to  denounce  falsehood  and  deceit  with  words 
that  scorched  and  blistered.  His  one  outstanding 
characteristic  was  strength — strength  of  character, 
strength  born  of  intense  convictions  and  of  strong  and 
lofty  motives.  Very  truthfully  says  Ewald:  "Of  the 
other  prophets  all  the  more  celebrated  ones  were  distin- 
guished by  some  special  excellence  and  peculiar  power, 
whether  of  speech  or  of  deed;  in  Isaiah  all  the  powers 
and  all  the  beauties  of  prophetic  speech  and  deed  com- 
bine to  form  a  symmetrical  whole;  he  is  distinguished 
less  by  any  special  excellence  than  by  the  symmetry  and 
perfection  of  all  his  powers.  .  .  .  There  are  rarely  com- 
bined in  one  individual  the  profoundest  prophetic 
emotion  and  purest  feeling,  the  most  unwearied,  suc- 
cessful, and  consistent  activity  amid  all  the  confusions 
and  changes  of  life,  and,  lastly,  true  poetic  ease  and 
beauty  of  style  combined  with  force  and  irresistible 
power ;  yet  this  triad  of  powers  we  find  realized  in  Isaiah 
as  in  no  other  prophet."  Isaiah  is  indeed  a  king  among 
the  prophets. 

The  Personal  Life  of  Isaiah.  Little  is  known  of 
Isaiah's  early  life.  His  father  was  Arnoz,  who,  accord- 
ing to  an  ancient  Jewish  tradition,  was  the  brother  of 
Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  which  would  make  Isaiah  a 
cousin  of  Uzziah.  Other  reasons  for  believing  Isaiah  to 
have  been  of  roval  descent  have  been  seen  in  his  familiar- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  79 

ity  with  the  successive  monarchs  of  Judah  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  element  Yahweh  (Jehovah)  in  his 
name,  which  in  the  earher  periods  seems  to  have  been 
confined  to  royal  names;  but  the  evidence  cannot  be 
considered  conclusive.  However,  his  whole  conduct 
and  bearing  make  it  certain  that  he  was  of  high  social 
rank;  in  which  respect  he  differs  from  his  contem- 
porary Micah,  who  was  a  simple  peasant. 

The  place  of  Isaiah's  birth  is  not  given;  his  residence 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  capital  city  Jerusalem,  which 
is  the  center  of  all  his  thought  and  affection.  He  did 
not  live  apart  from  the  world,  but  mingled  freely  with 
men,  high  and  low,  and  was  a  keen  observer  of  life 
about  him.  As  has  been  indicated,  he  sustained  close  re- 
lations to  the  kings  of  his  day,  and  was  just  as  bold  and 
fearless  in  denouncing  them  as  he  was  in  addressing  the 
common  people. 

The  Prophet's  Family.  Isaiah  had  a  family.  His 
wife  is  called  a  prophetess  (8.  3).  Two  sons  are  men- 
tioned, to  whom  he  gave  names  symbolic  of  some  as- 
pects of  the  nation's  history  which  he  touched  upon  in 
his  message — Shear-jashub,  which  means,  "a  remnant 
shall  return,"  and  Maher-shalal-hash-baz,  that  is, 
"spoil  speedeth,  booty  hasteth." 

The  Last  Days  of  Isaiah.  About  the  last  days 
of  Isaiah  we  know^  nothing.  A  Jewish  tradition  says 
that  he  was  slain  by  Manasseh.  The  apocryphal  book 
called  "Ascension  of  Isaiah"  affirms  that  the  prophet 
was  sawn  asunder;  which  statement  is  found  also  in 
Justin  Martyr  and  may  underlie  Heb.  11.  37. 

Date  of  Isaiah's  Activity.  Isaiah's  ministry  began 
in  the  year  in  which  King  Uzziah  died  (6.  i),  that  is, 
some  time  between  740  and  736.  It  seems  to  have  ended 


8o       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

about  the  time  of  the  sudden  deliverance  of  Jerusalem 
from  Sennacherib  in  701.  He  may  have  prophesied 
some  years  later,  but  none  of  the  utterances  coming  from 
him  can  be  assigned  with  certainty  to  a  later  date. 
If  Isaiah  was  bom  about  760,  as  is  not  improbable,  he 
was  a  child  when  Amos  appeared  at  Beth-el,  and  Hosea 
was  still  active  when  he  began  his  prophetic  career.  It 
is  not  unlikely,  therefore,  that  he  was  acquainted  with 
the  activities  of  these  two  prophets  of  Israel. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  ISAIAH 

Principal    Divisions    of    the    Book    of    Isaiah.    The 

Book  of  Isaiah  may  be  divided  into  seven  portions  of 
unequal  length:  I.  Chapters  1-12,  Prophecies  concerning 
Judah  and  Israel  coming  from  different  periods  of 
Isaiah's  activity;  II.  Chapters  13-23,  Prophecies  con- 
cerning foreign  nations;  III.  Chapters  24-27,  Picture  of 
a  great  world  judgment,  from  which  the  people  of 
Jehovah  will  escape;  IV.  Chapters  28-33,  Group  of 
discourses  having  for  their  subject  chiefly  the  relations 
of  Judah  with  Eg>^pt  and  Assyria;  V.  Chapters  34,  35, 
Contrast  between  the  destiny  of  Israel  and  that  of  Edom ; 
VI ,  Chapters  36-39,  An  historical  section,  dealing 
chiefly  w^ith  the  activity  of  Isaiah  during  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah;  VII.  Chapters  40-66,  The  restoration  of 
Judah  from  exile. 

Integrity  of  the  Book.  Modem  scholars  are  quite 
generally  agreed  in  assigning  sections  III,  V,  and  VII 
to  a  date  later  than  that  of  Isaiah,  the  son  of  Amoz. 
Section  VI,  which  is  found  with  some  variations  in  2 
Kings  i8ff.,  is  thought  by  many  to  have  been  written 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  Isaiah,  and  there  are  several 
other  chapters,  for  example,  13.  i — 14.  23;  21;  ^2,  that 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  8i 

are  looked  upon  with  suspicion;  but  even  if  the  argu- 
ments against  all  these  sections  were  conclusive,  Isaiah 
would  still  remain  the  greatest  of  the  prophets;  and 
from  the  utterances  which  may  be  assigned  to  him  with 
a  feeling  of  absolute  assurance  it  is  not  difficult  to  form 
an  adequate  view  of  his  work  and  teaching. 

Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Prophecies.  The 
arrangement  of  the  separate  utterances  in  the  book  is 
not  chronological,  but  the  historical  allusions  are  defi- 
nite enough  to  enable  one  to  assign  most  of  the  prophe- 
cies to  definite  dates,  though  in  a  few  cases  an  element 
of  uncertainty  may  remain : 

1.  To   the   period   before   the   Syro-Ephraimitic  crisis 

in  735-734  seem  to  belong,  2.  2 — 4.  6;  5.  1-245  6; 
9.  8—10.  4;  5.  25-30. 

2.  In  connection  with  that  crisis  were  delivered,  7.  i — 9. 

7;   17.  i-ii. 

3.  In  connection  with  the  fall  of  Samaria,  28.  1-4. 

4.  In  connection  with  Sargon's  invasion  in  711,  chapter 

20. 

5.  In  connection  with  Sennacherib's  invasion  and  the 

events  leading  up  to  it,    i;    10.   5-34;    11.   1-9; 
14.24-32;   18;   22;   23;   28;   29;   30;  31. 

6.  Of    uncertain  date,  though  probably  coming  from 

Isaiah,  15;  16;  17.  12-14;  i9i  32. 
The  Great  Arraignment,  Chapter  i.  Chapter  i 
owes  its  present  position  to  the  comprehensiveness  of 
its  contents,  for  it  contains  in  brief  form  all  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  Isaiah's  teaching.  The  utterance, 
which  stands  by  itself,  has  been  aptly  described  by 
Ewald  as  "The  great  arraignment."  Jehovah  is  the 
plaintiff,  Judah  the  defendant,  the  prophet  an  inter- 
ested by-stander  and  go-between.     The  chapter  falls 


82       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

naturally  into  two  divisions.  The  first  (2-20)  calls  at- 
tention to  the  moral  and  religious  issues  involved  in  the 
dispute  between  Jehovah  and  the  people.  Jehovah  has 
chosen  Israel  and  exalted  it  above  all  other  nations,  but 
it  has  basely  rebelled  against  its  Lord,  and  is  even  now 
suffering  the  consequences  of  its  folly  (2-9).  The 
prophet  assumes  that  the  denunciation  is  resented  by 
his  hearers,  who  accuse  him  of  unfairness,  because  he 
takes  no  notice  of  the  care  with  which  they  observe 
the  external  forms  of  religion.  He  replies  by  saying 
that  they  are  seeking  Jehovah  by  the  wrong  means :  the 
whole  ceremonial  system  as  practiced  by  them,  sacri- 
fices, feast  days,  and  even  prayers,  are  an  abomination 
to  Jehovah  (10-15).  O^"^  the  other  hand,  moral  refor- 
mation and  a  righteous  life,  the  only  service  acceptable 
to  God,  are  neglected  by  them  (16,  1 7) ;  hence  they  stand 
before  Jehovah  as  condemned  criminals.  Nevertheless 
he  is  still  merciful;  if  they  show  themselves  worthy 
he  is  ready  to  pardon  (18),  and  if  henceforth  they  will 
live  an  obedient  life  prosperity  will  be  their  portion  (19) ; 
but  if  they  continue  in  rebellion  death  and  destruction 
will  overtake  them  (20). 

The  prophet  seems  convinced  that  the  proposition  will 
not  be  accepted ;  at  any  rate,  he  immediately  proceeds 
to  announce  the  judgment  which  is  now  inevitable. 
However,  the  judgment  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  anni- 
hilation, but  of  discipline:  it  will  result  in  the  purifi- 
cation of  those  who  are  still  sensitive  to  the  divine  mercy 
and  in  the  destruction  of  the  obstinate.  The  announce- 
ment of  judgment  opens  with  a  dirge  over  the  moral 
decay  of  Jerusalem.  At  one  time  righteousness  had 
her  home  there,  but  now  it  is  filled  with  assassins.  The 
ruling  classes  are  utterly  corrupt — what  can  be  ex- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  83 

pected  of  the  others  (21-23)?  Judgment  will  surely 
come  (24,  25),  to  result  in  the  restoration  of  Zion  to  her 
former  purity  (26,  27)  and  in  the  destruction  of  those 
who  persist  i-n  rebellion  (28).  When  the  awful  blow 
falls  the  nothingness  of  the  idols  will  be  revealed  (29-31). 

The  Realization  of  the  Glories  of  the  Messianic  Age 
after  a  Period  of  Judgment,  Chapters  2-4.  Chapters 
2-4  form  a  separate  collection,  which  contains  (i)  an 
introduction  (2.  2-4),  describing  the  glory  of  Zion  as 
the  center  of  the  universal  kingdom  of  God;  (2)  a  series 
of  discourses  (2.  5 — 4.  i),  in  which  the  prophet  attacks 
the  evils  and  vices  of  the  present  and  announces  judg- 
ment upon  all;  and  (3)  a  conclusion  (4.  2-6),  which 
sets  forth  the  disciplinary  effects  of  the  judgment:  the 
ideal  set  forth  in  2.  2-4  will  be  realized. 

The  Glories  of  the  Messianic  Age,  the  Present  Cor- 
ruption, and  the  Inevitable  Judgment,  Chapter  2. 
We  Imve,  then,  first  of  all,  a  sublime  picture  of  the 
glories  of  the  Messianic  age  (2.  2-4).  According  to 
this  ideal  picture  Judah  is  to  be  the  spiritual  teacher 
of  the  nations,  but  it  cannot  carry  out  this  commission 
as  long  as  it  remains  in  its  present  spiritual  condition. 
Therefore  the  prophet  appeals  to  the  people:  If  the 
ideal  picture  is  ever  to  be  realized  it  is  high  time  that 
a  beginning  should  be  made;  and  if  no  one  else  does  it, 
let  us  Jews  at  least  follow  the  instruction  of  Jehovah  (5) . 
But  suddenly  he  thinks  of  the  hopeless  condition  of 
the  people  and  cries  out  in  despair:  What  is  the  use 
even  to  try,  for  thou  hast  already  cast  off  the  people,  and 
not  without  reason;  indeed,  their  rejection  is  inevitable 
in  view  of  their  rebellion  against  Jehovah,  as  seen  (i) 
in  the  use  of  divination ;  (2)  in  their  greed  and  luxurious 
living;   (3)  in  their  trust  in  human  defenses;   (4)  in  the 


84      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

practice  of  idolatry  (6-8).  Jehovah  must  vindicate 
his  majesty  in  order  to  bring  man  to  his  senses  (9-1 1). 
This  he  will  do  by  sending  a  terrible  judgment,  that 
will  destroy  the  handiwork  of  God  and  man  (12-16). 
Then  Jehovah  alone  will  be  exalted  while  man  will  be 
humiliated,  and  the  idols  will  be  sw^ept  away  (17-22). 

The  Judgment  upon  Judah,  3.  1-15.  From  the 
general  judgment  the  prophet  turns  to  a  more  specific 
judgment  upon  Judah,  which  will  result  in  the  disso- 
lution of  all  social  order  (3.  1-7).  The  blow  is  due  to 
the  people's  attitude  of  defiance  toward  Jehovah,  and 
the  incompetence  and  injustice  of  the  rulers  (8-12). 
In  verses  13-15  the  prophet  portrays  a  judgment  scene. 
Jehovah,  at  once  accuser  and  judge,  comes  to  vindicate 
the  cause  of  the  poor  against  the  oppressors. 

Judgment  upon  the  Wanton  Women  of  Jerusalem, 
3. 16 — 4. 1.  In  3, 16 — 4, 1  a  crushing  attack  is  made  upon 
the  wanton  women  of  Jerusalem,  Like  Amos,  Isaiah 
is  convinced  that  the  self-indulgence  and  luxury  of  the 
women  is  one  cause  of  the  extortion  practiced  by  their 
husbands;   therefore  they  must  share  in  the  judgment. 

Blessings  in  Store  for  the  Redeemed  Remnant, 
4.  2-6.  Out  of  the  judgment  a  remnant  will  escape 
which  will  enjoy  forever  the  favor  and  blessing  of  God. 
The  future  glory  is  presented  under  three  aspects: 
(i)  extraordinary  fertility  of  the  soil  (2);  (2)  purifica- 
tion from  all  uncleanness  (3,  4);  (3)  the  presence  of 
Jehovah  himself  and  the  accompanying  benefits  (5,  6). 

The  Corruption  of  the  People  and  the  Inevitable  Doom, 
Chapter  5.  Chapter  5  deals  with  the  same  subjects  as 
chapters  2-4,  the  corruption  of  people  and  rulers  and 
the  inevitable  doom.  The  chapter  falls  naturally  into 
three  parts:   i.  The  parable  of  the  vineyard,  which  sets 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  85 

forth  the  glaring  ingratitude  of  Israel  and  its  rejection 
by  Jehovah  (1-7).  2.  An  exposition  of  the  parable  in 
the  form  of  six  woes,  (i)  upon  the  greedy  nobles  who 
rob  the  poor  of  their  property,  so  that  only  a  few  retain 
residential  rights  (8-10);  (2)  upon  those  who  spend 
their  time  in  dissipation  and  as  a  result  lose  all  spiritual 
perception  (i  i-i  7) ;  (3)  upon  the  mocking  skeptics  who 
do  not  heed  the  prophetic  warnings  and  recklessly  in- 
crease their  guilt  (18,  19);  (4)  upon  the  morally  per- 
verse who  set  aside  all  moral  standards  (20) ;  (5)  upon 
the  self-conceited  w^ho  think  that  they  do  not  need 
the  wisdom  of  Jehovah  (21) ;  (6)  upon  the  dissolute  and 
corrupt  judges  (23).  This  awful  condition  of  affairs 
demands  speedy  judgment  (24).  3.  Jehovah  will  send 
a  powerful  army  that  will  utterly  destroy  land  and 
people  (25-30). 

The  Vision  of  Isaiah,  Chapter  6.  Chapter  6  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  inaugural  vision  of  Isaiah, 
placed  in  its  present  position  as  an  introduction  to 
7.  I — 9.  7,  to  add  weight  to  the  contents  of  these  chap- 
ters. In  the  death  year  of  King  Uzziah  Isaiah  passed 
through  a  great  spiritual  crisis  which  prepared  him 
for  his  prophetic  ministry  and  impressed  upon  him  cer- 
tain truths  which  determined  the  character  of  all  his 
prophetic  utterances.  One  day,  while  Isaiah  was 
worshiping  in  the  temple,  meditating  perhaps  upon  the 
character  of  Jehovah  and  the  disloyalty  of  his  con- 
temporaries, he  had  a  vision  of  Jehovah  in  all  his 
splendor,  sitting  upon  a  throne,  surrounded  by  his 
heavenly  courtiers,  who  were  singing  his  praises, 
giving  special  emphasis  to  the  divine  holiness  and  its 
glorious  manifestation  in  all  the  earth  (1-4).  He  be- 
comes conscious  of  his  own  uncleanness  and  of  that  of 


86       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

his  people,  but  immediately  he  is  cleansed;  whereupon 
he  hears  the  divine  voice  calling  for  some  one  to  proph- 
esy to  the  people;  Isaiah  volunteers  and  receives  the 
commission  (5-8).  At  the  same  time  he  is  assured  that 
the  effects  of  his  preaching  will  be  disappointing; 
it  will  result  in  increasing  blindness  and  stubbornness 
(9,  10).  This  will  bring  severe  judgment  from  Jehovah, 
out  of  which  only  a  small  remnant  will  escape  (11-13). 
Isaiah's  Advice  to  Ahaz  during  the  Syro-Ephraimitic 
Crisis,  Chapter  7.  The  prophecies  in  7,  i — 9.  7,  which 
are  closely  connected,  portray  the  working  out  in 
history  of  the  latter  part  of  Isaiah's  vision :  in  the  first 
place,  the  hardening  of  the  hearts  of  the  people; 
secondly,  the  setting  apart  of  a  holy  seed  out  of  which 
might  grow  a  new  kingdom  of  God.  Chapter  7.  1-3  in- 
troduces us  to  the  Syro-Ephraimitic  crisis.  The  com- 
bined armies  w^ere  approaching;  Ahaz  and  the  people 
were  in  consternation;  an  appeal  to  Tiglath-pileser  of 
Assyria  seemed  the  only  way  of  escape  (1,2).  To  allay 
the  fears  of  Ahaz  was  the  purpose  of  Isaiah's  interview. 
The  prophet  can  see  no  cause  for  alarm,  for  the  hostile 
armies  are  about  to  be  extinguished  by  Assyria  (3,  4). 
Besides,  Jehovah  has  an  interest  in  the  struggle,  and  he 
will  stand  by  Ahaz  if  the  king  will  only  have  faith 
(5-9).  To  overcome  the  king's  doubts  Isaiah  offers 
him  a  sign,  which  he  refuses  (10-12).  Whereupon  the 
prophet  announces  that  Jehovah  will  give  him  a  sign  to 
prove  the  divine  power,  which  will  show  itself,  first, 
in  the  driving  away  of  the  enemy,  and  then  in  a  severe 
judgment  upon  Judah  (13-17).  There  follow  four 
pictures  of  the  devastation  wrought  by  the  hostile 
army:  i.  Flies  and  bees  (18,  19);  2.  The  hired  razor 
(20);    3.  The  population  will  be  reduced  to  the  pas- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  87 

toral  life  of  the  desert  (21,  22);  4.  The  most  costly 
vineyards  will  be  overrun  by  thorns  and  thistles    (23- 

25)- 
Isaiah's   Appeal   to  the   People  and  His   Rejection, 

8.  1-15.  When  Ahaz  rejected  the  advice  of  Isaiah, 
the  prophet  turned  to  the  people  with  the  same 
message.  The  first  few  verses  of  chapter  8  are  only  a 
repetition  of  the  announcement  made  to  Ahaz  in  7. 
14-17.  At  first  the  prophet  promises  deliverance; 
this  he  does  by  the  twofold  sign  of  Maher-shalal-hash- 
baz  (1-4).  But  he  immediately  follows  with  the  threat 
that  the  Assyrian  will  overrun  Judah  (5-8a).  Never- 
theless, Judah  will  not  be  entirely  destroyed,  for  Jehovah 
will  come  to  the  rescue  and  frustrate  all  schemes 
directed  against  the  rule  of  Jehovah  on  Mount  Zion 
(8b-io).  To  gain  the  hearing  of  the  people  Isaiah  de- 
clares that  the  only  reason  why  he  sets  himself  against 
the  policy  of  the  king  and  the  opinion  of  the  people  is 
the  fact  that  he  is  under  divine  direction  (11-15). 

Isaiah  and  His  Disciples,  the  Imminent  Doom  and 
Future  Glory,  8.  16 — 9.  7.  When  the  prophet  failed 
to  make  an  impression  on  the  people,  he  turned  from 
them  and  retired  within  the  circle  of  his  immediate 
followers.  To  them  he  commits  a  record  of  the  proph- 
ecies delivered  before  king  and  people  and  prepares 
them  by  further  instruction  for  a  more  auspicious  time 
when  they  might  take  up  the  work  afresh.  Isaiah  con- 
siders his  name  and  the  names  of  his  two  sons  pledges 
of  the  divine  faithfulness,  intended  for  the  unbelieving 
people  (16-18).  In  preparing  his  disciples  for  the  fu- 
tiire  he  pictures  to  them  the  darkness  and  despair 
of  the  days  to  come.  There  will  be  spiritual  darkness, 
when  the  people  will  resort  to  the  black  arts  for  guidance 


88       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

(19,  20),  and  outward  distress,  when  men  will  roam 
through  a  dreary  land,  maddened  by  hunger,  and  seek- 
ing relief  in  vain  (21,  22). 

But  a  brighter  day  will  come,  and  the  districts  that 
suffered  most  will  experience  the  greater  joy  (9.  i).  The 
light  and  joy  of  a  great  deliverance  will  break  upon  the 
people,  the  Assyrian  will  be  overthrown,  every  vestige 
of  war  will  disappear,  and  finally  the  Messianic  king 
will  set  up  his  reign  of  righteousness  and  peace  (2-7). 

Israel's  Rebellion  and  Punishments,  9. 8 — 10. 4.  The 
next  section,  9.  8 — 10.  4,  to  w^hich  may  have  belonged  at 
one  time  5.  25-30,  contains  a  series  of  prophecies  di- 
rected against  the  northern  kingdom.  Down  to  9.  21 
(+5.  25)  we  have  a  retrospect  of  historical  judgments, 
by  which  Jehovah  has  sought  to  bring  the  people  to  re- 
pentance, but  in  vain;  hence  a  final  blow  will  fall 
(5.  25-30).  The  utterance  in  10.  1-4  is  in  the  nature  of 
a  woe. 

After  a  statement  as  to  why  and  upon  whom  the 
judgments  have  fallen  (8.  8-10)  the  prophet  describes 
the  first  judgment,  the  aggressions  of  Israel's  power- 
ful neighbors  in  the  east  and  west  (11,  12).  Since  the 
people  continued  in  rebellion  a  second  blow  came  in  the 
form  of  some  sudden  catastrophe  by  w^hich  the  state 
was  robbed  of  its  leaders.  The  people  w^ere  so  corrupt 
that  Jehovah  felt  compelled  to  withdraw  his  com- 
passion even  from  the  helpless  widows  and  orphans 
(13-17).  There  followed,  as  the  third  judgment,  a 
state  of  anarchy  and  civil  strife  (18-21).  In  10.  1-4 
follows  a  woe  upon  the  maladministrators  of  justice. 
The  unjust  judges  will  receive  their  dues  in  some  day  of 
slaughter. 

The  Arrogance  of  the  Assyrians  and  their  Overthrow, 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  89 

10.  5-34.  The  rest  of  chapter  10  contains  the  hrst 
oracle  aimed  directly  against  Assyria.  Isaiah  believed 
that  Judah  deserved  punishment  and  that  Assyria  was 
appointed  to  execute  it,  but  he  also  believed  that  the 
Assyrians  had  gone  beyond  Jehovah's  purpose.  Here 
he  even  declares  that  they  do  not  recognize  at  all  the 
sway  of  Israel's  God;  they  glory  in  their  own  wisdom 
and  strength,  by  which  they  claim  to  have  achieved 
past  successes,  and  proudly  they  boast  that  Jerusalem 
will  soon  fall  before  them  (5-1 1,  13,  14).  Jehovah 
will  vindicate  his  supremacy  by  overthrowing  the 
proud  Assyrian  power  (12,  15-19).  This  decisive 
manifestation  of  Jehovah's  power  will  result  in  the 
conversion  of  a  remnant  of  Judah  (20-23).  After  an- 
other message  of  comfort  to  the  troubled  people  (24- 
27),  the  prophet  describes  ideally  the  enemy's  march 
from  the  northern  frontier  to  the  gates  of  Jerusalem, 
where  he  will  be  annihilated  just  as  the  goal  of  his 
ambition  seems  to  be  within  reach  (28-34). 

The  Messianic  Kingdom  and  the  Joy  of  the  Re- 
deemed, Chapters  11,  12.  The  overthrow  of  Assyria 
will  prepare  the  way  for  the  setting  up  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom.  The  prophet  announces  the  advent  of  the 
Messianic  king,  describes  his  person  and  character, 
and  praises  his  just  administration  (11.  1-5).  The  re- 
sult of  his  reign  will  be  the  restoration  of  the  peace  of 
paradise,  affecting  both  man  and  beast,  and  the  uni- 
versal spread  of  righteousness  and  the  knowledge  of 
Jehovah  (6-9).  The  influence  proceeding  from  the  new 
religion  will  attract  the  nations  of  the  earth  (10) ;  the 
dispersed  Jews  will  be  gathered  from  the  ends  of  the 
earth,  and  the  united  north  and  south  will  subdue  the 
neighboring  nations  (11 -16).    The  returning  exiles  will 


90       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

celebrate  the  glorious  deliverance  with  joyous  songs  of 
praise,  because  the  anger  of  Jehovah  is  now  turned 
away,  and  expressions  of  confidence  for  the  future  (12. 
I,  2).  In  verse  3  the  prophet  assures  the  people  that 
Jehovah  will  always  be  near  them  to  supply  their  every 
need.  Whereupon  the  members  of  the  redeemed  com- 
munity exhort  one  another  to  declare  Jehovah's  praises 
to  the  world  (4-6). 

The  Downfall  of  Babylon,  13.  i — 14.  23.  With 
chapter  13  begins  the  second  main  division  of  the  Book 
of  Isaiah,  consisting  of  prophecies  against  various  na- 
tions that  came  into  hostile  contact  with  Israel  and 
Judah.  The  first  utterance,  13.  i — 14,  23,  deals  with 
the  downfall  of  Babylon.  The  historical  background  is 
that  of  the  exile.  The  Jews  are  represented  as  held 
captive  by  the  Babylonians,  but  the  capture  of  Babylon 
is  imminent,  when  the  exiles  will  be  released.  Chapter 
13.  2-22  describes  the  downfall  of  Babylon  and  the 
events  leading  up  to  it.  The  nations  appointed  to 
execute  judgment  upon  the  cruel  city  are  gathered  upon 
the  mountains  (2-4),  and  the^^  spread  terror  everywhere 
(5-8).  Amid  convulsions  of  nature  the  city  will  be 
attacked  and  taken;  some  will  flee,  but  the  majority 
of  the  population,  old  and  young,  will  be  cruelly 
massacred  (9-16).  The  Medes  are  the  executioners  of 
the  awful  judgment  upon  Babylon  (17-19),  which  will 
remain  under  a  curse  forever,  deserted  by  man  and 
Inhabited  only  by  desert  animals  (20-22).  The  imme- 
diate result  of  the  destruction  of  Babylon  will  be  the  re- 
lease of  the  exiled  Jews  and  their  restoration  to  felicity 
in  their  own  land  (14.  1-4).  This  promise  is  followed 
by  a  song  of  triumph  over  the  downfall  of  the  Babylo- 
nian king.    The  whole  earth  rejoices  that  the  oppressof 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  91 

is  gone  (4b-8) ;  but  Sheol  is  disturbed  when  his  arrival 
there  becomes  known  (9-1 1),  The  prophet  reflects 
upon  the  fate  of  the  fallen  king.  Never  would  the 
thought  of  being  cast  into  Sheol  have  entered  the  mind 
of  the  proud  monarch  (12-15).  Suddenly  the  prophet 
transports  the  reader  from  Sheol  to  the  battlefield, 
where  the  dead  king  lies,  exposed  to  the  derision  of 
men  who  glory  in  his  downfall  (16-19).  The  lack  of 
proper  burial  and  the  extermination  of  his  family  are 
the  severest  judgments  which  can  befall  him,  according 
to  Oriental  ideas  (20,  21).  The  oracle  closes  with  a 
reassertion  of  the  speedy  overthrow  of  Babylon  (22,  23). 

The  Overthrow  of  the  Assyrians,  14.  24-32.  The 
prophecy  against  Babylon  is  followed  by  two  inde- 
pendent oracles  belonging  to  a  different  historical  situ- 
ation: one  announcing  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrians 
during  an  invasion  of  Palestine  (24-27),  the  other 
threatening  Philistia  with  a  serious  calamity  proceeding 
from  the  north  (2  8-3  2 ) . 

An  Oracle  against  Moab,  Chapters  15,  16.  Chapters 
15,  16  contain  an  oracle  against  Moab.  The  greater 
part  of  the  utterance  seems  descriptive  of  a  great  calam- 
ity that  has  already  befallen  Moab.  In  one  night  the 
chief  cities  of  Moab  have  been  laid  waste  (15.  i);  the 
distressed  survivors  crowd  the  sanctuaries  (2-4) ; 
finally  they  are  compelled  to  leave  the  land  to  find  refuge 
in  Edom  (5-8) ;  and  still  greater  troubles  are  awaiting 
Moab  (9).  The  Moabites  send  presents  to  Jerusalem 
and  appeal  for  help,  but  their  appeal  is  not  heeded  (16. 
1-5).  No  matter  how  much  the  author  may  wish  to  see 
the  calamity  averted  there  is  no  relief;  it  must  run  its 
course  (6-12).  Thus  far  the  original  prophecy  spoken 
"in  time  past"   (13)  seems  to  go.     Isaiah  takes  it  up 


92       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

and  announces  that  it  will  surely  be  fulfilled  in  a  few 
years  (14). 

Speedy  Overthrow  of  Damascus,  Israel,  and  an 
Unnamed  Foe,  Chapter  17.  Chapter  17.  i-n  contains 
an  announcement  of  the  speedy  overthrow  of  Damascus 
and  Israel  (compare  chapters  7  and  8).  Damascus 
and  Israel  shall  surely  fall  (1-6);  this  manifestation 
of  the  divine  power  will  lead  to  a  return  of  many  to 
Jehovah  (7,  8).  The  apostasy  of  Israel  is  responsible 
for  its  overthrow  (9-1 1).  Verses  12-14  are  an  oracle 
announcing  the  sudden  destruction  of  "many  peoples," 
perhaps  the  Assyrians,  as  they  advance  against  the 
people  of  Jehovah. 

Reply  to  Ambassadors  of  Ethiopia,  Chapter  18. 
Chapter  18  is  somewhat  obscure.  It  seems  to  contain 
the  prophet's  reply  to  Ethiopian  ambassadors  who 
came  to  induce  the  king  of  Judah  to  join  Ethiopia  in  an 
attack  upon  Assyria.  The  prophet  tells  the  ambassa- 
dors to  return,  for  Jehovah  has  already  decreed  the 
downfall  of  Assyria  (1-6).  When  the  Ethiopians  see 
the  humiliation  of  Assyria  they  will  do  homage  to 
the  God  of  Israel  (7). 

The  Burden  of  Egypt,  Chapter  19.  Chapter  19  is 
entitled  "The  burden  of  Egypt."  Jehovah  will  execute  a 
terrible  judgment  upon  Egypt.  Anarchy  and  social  dis- 
order will  distress  the  land ;  sorcery  will  be  appealed  to, 
but  no  relief  will  come;  finally  a  "fierce  ruler"  will 
oppress  the  people  (1-4).  The  Nile  will  dry  up,  agri- 
culture will  cease,  and  other  industries  will  be  paralyzed 
(5-10).  The  traditional  wisdom  of  Egypt  will  fail,  and 
the  nation  will  stagger  "as  a  drunken  man  staggereth  in 
his  vomit"  (11-15).  When  the  Egyptians  discover  that 
Jehovah  is  the  cause  of  all  these  calamities  they  will 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  93 

be  filled  with  terror  (16,  17),  and  in  the  end  a  complete 
change  will  take  place  in  their  attitude  toward  Jehovah 
and  Israel.  The  language  of  the  Jews  will  be  spoken  in 
Egypt  (18),  the  worship 'of  Jehovah  will  be  established 
there  (19-22),  and  peaceful  intercourse  will  begin  be- 
tween Israel  and  Egypt  in  the  southwest  and  Assyria 
in  the  east,  until  all  three  will  become  the  people  of 
Jehovah  (23-25). 

Symbolic  Act  Illustrating  the  Success  of  Sargon  in 
Palestine,  Chapter  20.  Chapter  20  contains  the  in- 
terpretation of  a  symbolic  act  performed  by  Isaiah. 
In  the  year  in  which  the  army  of  Sargon  besieged 
Ashdod,  that  is,  in  711,  there  was  a  party  in  Judah 
urging  an  alliance  with  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  against 
Assyria.  The  symbolic  act  is  to  warn  King  Hezekiah 
against  the  alliance,  for  the  success  of  Assyria  is  assured. 

Oracles  against  Babylon  and  Arabia,  Chapter  21. 
In  chapter  21.  i-io  is  another  oracle  against  Babylon. 
The  prophet  sees  a  siege  of  the  city  (i,  2).  At  first  he  is 
agitated  and  appalled  (3,  4).  For  a  time  he  is  uncer- 
tain as  to  the  outcome,  but  finally  he  beholds  the  fall 
of  the  city  (5-9),  which  he  makes  known  to  the  people 
(10).  Verses  11,12  contain  an  oracle,  put  in  enigmatic 
language,  concerning  Edom,  and  13-17  predict  an  in- 
vasion and  destruction  of  Arabia. 

Condemnation  of  the  People*s  Conduct,  22.  1-14. 
Chapter  22.  1-14  is  a  condemnation  of  the  people's 
conduct  during  an  attack  upon  the  capital  city.  They 
give  themselves  to  wild  rejoicing,  while  the  occasion 
demands  grief  and  mourning  (1-3).  The  prophet  is 
filled  with  shame  (4,  5),  and  tries  to  show  to  the  people 
that  their  relief  was  not  due  to  measures  of  defense,  but 
to  a  divine  providence;  hence  the  present  is  not  a  time 


94       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

for  thoughtless  revelry,  but  for  serious  reflection  and 
penitence  (6-13).  Jehovah  will  hold  them  to  account 
for  their  disregard  of  him  (14). 

Denunciation  of  Shebna,  22.  15-25.  The  rest  of 
chapter  22  deals  with  a  prominent  politician  in  Jeru- 
salem. Shebna,  an  official  in  the  royal  palace,  is  de- 
nounced by  Isaiah  and  threatened  with  deposition  and 
banishment  (15-19);  Eliakim  is  nominated  as  his 
successor  (20-25). 

Prophecy  against  Tyre  and  Sidon,  Chapter  23.  The 
prophecy  in  chapter  23  is  directed  against  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  the  chief  representatives  of  Phoenician  power  and 
civilization.  The  ships  of  Tarshish,  homeward  bound, 
are  summoned  to  wail  over  the  downfall  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian cities  (1-5),  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  are 
ironically  urged  to  seek  refuge  beyond  the  sea  (6,  7). 
The  present  calamity  is  decreed  by  Jehovah,  who  is 
determined  to  destroy  the  Phoenicians  and  will  pursue 
them  even  beyond  the  sea  (10-14).  After  the  lapse 
of  seventy  years  Tyre  will  be  restored  and  converted  to 
Jehovah  (15-18). 

A  Great  World  Judgment,  Chapters  24-27.  Chap- 
ters 24-27  form  a  distinct  section  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah, 
coming  probably  from  the  postexilic  period.  They 
portray  in  vivid  colors  a  great  world  judgment  and  the 
escape  of  God's  faithful  people  from  its  terrors. 

Imminence  and  Severity  of  the  Judgment,  Chapter 
24.  A  world  judgment  is  about  to  be  executed  (24.  1-3), 
on  account  of  the  wickedness  of  men  (4-6) ;  joy  will 
vanish  from  the  earth ;  everywhere  will  be  lamentation 
(7-9)1  even  "the  city"  is  left  desolate  (10-12);  only  a 
small  remnant  will  escape  (13).  The  prophet  hears 
rejoicing  over  the  dawn  of  a  better  day,  but  he  de- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  95 

clares  it  to  be  premature  (i 4-1 6a),  and  portrays  once 
more  in  vivid  colors  the  imminent  judgment  (i6b-23). 

Hymns  of  Thanksgiving  and  the  Blessedness  of 
the  Messianic  Age,  Chapter  25.  Chapter  25  falls 
naturally  into  three  divisions.  Verses  1-5  are  a  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  in  which  the  author,  speaking  in  the 
name  of  the  redeemed  community,  praises  God  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  enemy  and  the  mercy  vouchsafed  to 
his  people.  Verses  6-8  picture  the  blessedness  of  the 
Messianic  age.  This  is  followed  by  another  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  praising  God  for  the  deliverance  of  his 
people  (9)  and  the  complete  destruction  of  Moab  (10-12). 

Song  of  Praise  for  Jehovah's  Wonderful  Deliver- 
ance, 26.  1-19.  Chapter  26,  1-19  is  another  song  of 
praise:  Jehovah  has  been  the  salvation  of  his  city  and 
has  caused  the  downfall  of  the  hostile  power  (1-6) ; 
judgment  alone  can  teach  righteousness  to  the  nations, 
mercy  only  hardens  them  (7-10).  Remembering  the 
past  mercies  of  Jehovah,  the  author  prays  for  new 
blessings,  the  overthrow  of  the  enemies  and  peace  for 
Israel  (i  i-i  5) .  The  dark  experiences  of  Israel  in  the  past 
have  not  been  without  wholesome  effects,  but  the 
crisis  is  by  no  means  over.  One  of  the  most  perplexing 
problems  seems  to  have  been  the  scantiness  of  the  popu- 
lation (16-18);  therefore  Jehovah  will  increase  the 
numbers  by  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  members  of 
the  community  (19). 

The  Salvation  of  the  People  of  Jehovah,  26.  20 — 27. 13. 
Chapter  26.  20  is  the  continuation  of  25.  8,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  lyrical  sections.  The  people  of 
Jehovah  are  bidden  to  hide  "until  the  indignation  be 
overpast  "  (20,  21) ;  for  Jehovah  will  execute  a  terrible 
judgment  (27.   i).     Another  poem  pictures  Jehovah's 


q6     prophecy  and  the  prophets 

satisfaction  with  his  vineyard  and  permanent  interest 
in  its  welfare  (2-6).  The  people  are  summoned  to 
heed  the  lessons  taught  by  the  calamities  of  the  past, 
else  greater  disaster  may  befall  them  (7-1 1 ) ;  but  if  they 
return  to  Jehovah  he  will  restore  to  them  his  favor  and 
bring  back  the  exiles  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  (12,  13). 

The  Relation  of  Judah  to  Egypt  and  Assyria,  Chap- 
ters 28-32.  Chapters  28-32  contain  a  series  of  utter- 
ances delivered  during  the  years  between  the  accession 
of  Sennacherib  in  705  and  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem 
in  701.  Chapter  28.  1-4  was  probably  delivered  origi- 
nally before  the  fall  of  Samaria,  but  may  have  been 
repeated  by  Isaiah  at  the  later  time. 

The  Imminent  Judgment  and  its  Disciplinary  Value, 
Chapter  28.  The  section  begins  with  a  woe  upon  the 
drunkards  of  Samaria  and  an  announcement  of  the 
doom  of  the  city  (28.  1-6).  The  prophet  beholds  sim- 
ilar dissipation  in  Jerusalem,  accompanied  by  an  un- 
willingness to  listen  to  his  counsel.  The  people  trust 
in  human  covenants  and  defenses  rather  than  in  Jeho- 
vah, but  they  will  find  in  the  end  that  their  policy 
leads  to  destruction  (7-22).  There  follow  two  parables 
addressed,  perhaps,  to  Isaiah's  disciples,  to  set  forth 
the  divine  purpose  in  disciplining  his  people.  Just 
as  the  farmer  must  prepare  the  field  for  the  reception  of 
the  grain  by  plowing,  so  Jehovah  must  plow  his  people 
by  judgment  before  they  become  receptive  to  his 
teaching  (23-26).  Threshing  is  not  bruising;  it  is 
necessary  to  secure  the  grain,  and  the  method  is  adapted 
to  the  material:  so  judgment  is  not  simply  a  process  of 
causing  pain;  it  serves  a  higher  end,  and  it  also  is 
adapted  to  the  material  with  which  God  has  to  deal 
(27-29). 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  97 

No  Escape  from  the  Divine  Judgment,  which  will 
Bring  the  People  to  their  Senses,  Chapter  29.  Jeru- 
salem is  about  to  be  besieged  by  a  mighty  enemy 
(29.  1-4),  but  suddenly  Jehovah  will  appear  and  cause 
the  enemies  to  vanish  (5-8).  The  people  listen  to 
the  words  of  the  prophet  with  incredulity,  and  he 
tells  them  that  their  want  of  spiritual  perception  is  the 
result  of  the  divine  wrath  (9-12).  They  have  an  en- 
tirely false  idea  of  the  character  of  Jehovah  and  his 
requirements,  therefore  he  must  do  startling  things, 
such  as  have  been  announced  (13,  14).  The  prophet 
pronounces  another  woe,  this  time  upon  the  poli- 
ticians who  secretly  enter  into  conspiracy  with  Egypt; 
their  schemes  are  contrary  to  the  divine  purpose  and 
therefore  are  bound  to  fail  (15,  16).  The  prophecy 
closes  with  a  picture  of  the  ideal  future  when  the  people 
will  heed  the  word  of  Jehovah  (17-19),  when  op- 
pression and  mockery  will  cease  (20,  21),  and  the  re- 
deemed  remnant   will   serve   Jehovah   alone    (22-24). 

Failure  of  an  Alliance  with  Egypt;  Dawn  of  the 
Messianic  Era,  Chapter  30.  Chapter  30  opens  with 
a  woe  upon  the  "rebellious  children"  who  have  sent 
an  embassy  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Egypt.  It 
will  avail  nothing,  for  Egypt  invariably  disappoints 
those  trusting  in  her  (1-7).  The  proposed  treaty  is 
the  crowning  evidence  of  their  rebellion  against  Jehovah 
and  their  unwillingness  to  listen  to  his  representatives 
(8-1 1) ;  therefore  they  shall  be  broken  to  pieces  like  a 
potter's  vessel  (12-14).  Their  only  salvation  is  in  re- 
liance upon  Jehovah,  but  having  rejected  him  their 
doom  is  sealed  (15-17).  On  the  other  hand,  the  faith- 
ful will  enjoy  the  divine  favor  (18,  19) ;  they  will  have 
divinely    appointed    teachers    (20,    21),    idolatry   will 


98       PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

cease  (22),  and  nature  will  be  completely  transformed 
(23-26).  The  era  of  prosperity  will  be  inaugurated  by 
the  destruction  of  Assyria  (27-33). 

Jehovah  the  Determiner  of  Jerusalem's  Destiny, 
Chapter  31.  The  thoughts  expressed  in  chapter  30  are 
reiterated  in  31.  i — 32.  8.  The  alliance  with  Egypt  will 
avail  nothing  (31.  1-3);  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  is  in 
Jehovah's  hand;  he  alone  can  destroy  or  save  (4,  5); 
the  character  of  the  people  will  be  transformed  (6,  7); 
and  the  Assyrian  will  be  overthrown  (8,  9). 

The  Messianic  King  and  His  Kingdom ;  the  Impend- 
ing Doom;  the  Divine  Mercy,  Chapter  32.  The  Assyr- 
ian overthrown,  the  ideal  kingdom  of  God  will  be  set 
up  under  an  ideal  king  and  ideal  officials ;  individuals 
and  society  will  be  regenerated  (32.  1-8).  The  rest  of 
chapter  32  is  addressed  to  the  women  of  Jerusalem 
who,  by  their  unconcern  and  indifference,  have  aroused 
the  wrath  of  the  prophet  (9).  Trouble  is  impending, 
therefore  they  would  better  wail  and  lament  (10-12). 
The  desolation  will  spread  everywhere  (13,  14)  until  the 
divine  spirit  is  poured  out,  which  will  alter  the  ap- 
pearance of  nature  and  transform  the  character  of  the 
inhabitants  (15-20). 

Woe  upon  an  Unnamed  Oppressor;  the  Glory  of 
the  Messianic  Age,  Chapter  33.  The  woe  with  which 
chapter  ^^  opens  is  addressed  to  an  unnamed  op- 
pressor. If  the  prophecy  comes  from  Isaiah,  he  is 
probably  the  Assyrian.  Jehovah,  who  has  shown  an 
interest  in  Jerusalem  in  days  gone  by,  will  speedily 
disperse  the  troublers  of  his  people  (1-6).  At  present 
the  land  may  be  in  distress  and  mourn  bitterly  (7-9), 
but  Jehovah  is  about  to  arise  and  scatter  the  enemy 
(10-12).     When  the  divine  manifestation  is  seen  the 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  99 

ungodly  in  Jerusalem  will  tremble  (13,  14),  but  the 
righteous  will  dwell  securely  with  Jehovah  (15,  16).  The 
prophecy  concludes  with  a  picture  of  the  future  glory. 
The  king  will  appear  in  his  beauty  (17),  the  present 
danger  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past  (18,  19),  and  Jeru- 
salem will  dwell  in  security  and  prosperity  under  the 
rule  of  Jehovah  (20-23)  i  sickness  will  disappear  and 
pardon  will  be  granted  to  all  (24). 

Contrast  between  the  Destiny  of  Edom  and  that 
of  Israel,  Chapters  34,  35.  In  chapters  34,  35,  which 
are  quite  generally  assigned  to  a  postexilic  date,  the 
future  of  Edom  is  contrasted  with  that  of  Israel.  Edom 
will  be  humiliated,  Israel  will  be  raised  to  glory.  Chapter 
34  opens  with  a  vivid  description  of  the  terrors  of  a 
world  judgment  (1-4).  Edom,  w^hich  has  shown  special 
hostility  against  the  people  of  Jehovah,  will  suffer  most. 
Its  population  will  be  slaughtered  (5-8)  and  the  land 
will  become  desolate,  the  haunt  of  desert  animals 
forever  (9-17). 

Far  different  will  be  the  lot  of  Israel.  The  soil  of 
its  land  will  be  blessed  with  extraordinary  fertility 
(35. 1,  2) ;  human  infirmities  of  every  sort  will  disappear 
and  all  needs  will  be  abundantly  supplied  (3-7) ;  a 
highway  will  be  built,  over  which  the  exiles  may  safely 
return  to  Zion,  there  to  live  in  the  presence  of  their 
God  in  joy  and  felicity  forever  (8-10). 

Isaiah's  Activity  during  the  Reign  of  Hezekiah, 
Chapters  36-39.  Chapters  36-39  are  an  historical 
section,  found  with  some  variations — the  most  im- 
portant being  the  absence  of  the  song  of  Hezekiah — in 
2  Kings  18-20.  The  narratives  are  inserted  here  to 
illustrate  the  part  played  by  Isaiah  in  one  of  the  greatest 
crises  in  the  history  of   Judah,   the  invasion  of  Sen- 


ibo  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

nacherib  in  701.  Three  important  events  are  treated 
at  some  length:  (i)  the  efforts  of  Sennacherib  to  ob- 
tain possession  of  Jerusalem;  (2)  Hezekiah's  sickness 
and  recovery;    (3)  the  embassy  of  Merodach-baladan. 

Sennacherib's  Advance  Against  Jerusalem,  and  its 
Deliverance,  Chapters  36,  37.  In  the  fourteenth  year 
of  Hezekiah  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  overran 
Judah  (36.  i) ;  finally  he  sent  an  army  against  Jerusa- 
lem (2).  Representatives  of  Hezekiah  meet  the  leader, 
who  demands  the  surrender  of  the  city  (3-10).  They 
urge  him  to  speak  in  Aramaic,  so  that  the  people  may 
not  understand  the  threatening  message  (11);  the 
Rabshakeh  refuses  and  points  out  to  the  people  that 
submission  will  be  more  advantageous  than  resistance 
(12-20).  Discouraged  and  in  despair,  the  messengers 
return  to  Hezekiah  (21,  22),  who  now  appeals  to  the 
prophet  Isaiah  for  advice  (37.  1-5).  The  messengers  are 
sent  back  to  the  king  with  a  message  of  encouragement 
(6,  7).  The  Rabshakeh  returns  to  the  headquarters 
of  Sennacherib  at  Libnah  (8).  When  a  rumor  reaches 
Sennacherib  that  an  Egyptian  army  is  advancing,  he 
makes  another  attempt  to  secure  possession  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  sends  a  letter  to  Hezekiah  urging  submission 
(9-13).  On  receipt  of  the  letter  Hezekiah  goes  to  the 
temple  to  pray  (14-20).  The  answer  to  the  pra^^er 
comes  in  the  form  of  a  message  from  Isaiah,  assuring  the 
king  that  Sennacherib  will  not  be  able  to  harm  the  city 
(21-35).  The  prediction  is  fulfilled,  and  Sennacherib 
is  compelled  to  return  to  Nineveh,  where  he  is  assassi- 
nated (36-38). 

Hezekiah's  Sickness  and  Recovery,  Chapter  38. 
Chapter  38  records  Hezekiah's  sickness  and  recovery. 
Hezekiah,  sick  unto  death  (i),  prays  that  his  life  may 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  loi 

be  spared  (2,  3).  The  petition  is  granted,  and  fifteen 
years  are  added  to  his  Hfe  (4-8) ;  whereupon  Hezekiah 
utters  a  song  of  thanksgiving  for  his  recovery  (9-20), 
Verses  20,  21  seem  to  be  out  of  place;  the  former 
mentions  the  prophet's  prescription  for  the  malady  of 
the  king;  the  latter,  the  desire  of  Hezekiah  for  a  sign 
that  the  words  of  the  prophet  will  be  fulfilled. 

The  Embassy  of  Merodach-baladan  and  Isaiah's 
Threat,  Chapter  39.  Merodach-baladan  sends  an  em- 
bassy to  Hezekiah,  apparently  to  congratulate  him 
on  his  recovery  (39.  i ) .  Hezekiah  receives  it  gladly  and 
shows  the  men  all  his  resources  (2).  Isaiah  comes  to 
the  court  to  find  out  the  purpose  of  the  embassy  (3). 
When  told  that  the  king  has  shown  the  ambassadors 
all  his  resources  (4),  he  announces  a  future  exile  to 
the  land  from  which  the  embassy  has  come  (5-7). 
Hezekiah  expresses  his  satisfaction  that  the  calamity 
is  not  to  come  during  his  reign  (8). 

THE  WORK  AND  TEACHING  OF  ISAIAH 

Vision  of  the  Divine  Holiness.  The  key  to  Isaiah's 
activity  may  be  found  in  his  inaugural  vision,  an  ac- 
count of  which  is  contained  in  the  sixth  chapter.  Dur- 
ing this  vision  Isaiah  saw  Jehovah  as  a  God  of  infinite 
holiness  and  glorious  majesty.  Amos  emphasized  the 
righteousness  of  Jehovah,  Hosea  his  loving-kindness; 
Isaiah  saw  the  source  of  these  qualities  in  the  divine 
holiness;  righteousness,  loving-kindness,  and  all  other 
divine  qualities,  being  simply  the  expressions  of  the 
inner  holiness,  which  was,  so  to  speak,  the  heart  of 
the  Godhead.  Isaiah's  conception  of  the  holiness  of 
Jehovah  is  admirably  expressed  in  the  words  of  Kirk- 
patrick':   "Primarily  the  Hebrew  root  from  which  the 


I02  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

word  is  derived  seems  to  denote  separation.  It  repre- 
sents God  as  distinct  from  man,  separate  from  the 
creation  which  he  called  into  existence.  Then,  since 
limit  is  the  necessary  condition  of  created  things,  and 
imperfection  and  sinfulness  are  the  marks  of  humanity 
in  its  fallen  state,  the  term  grows  to  denote  the  sepa- 
ration of  God  from  all  that  is  limited,  imperfect,  and 
sinful.  But  it  does  not  rest  here  in  a  merely  negative 
conception.  It  expands  so  as  to  include  the  whole 
essential  nature  of  God  in  its  moral  aspect.  .  .  ,  His 
purity  and  his  righteousness,  his  faithfulness  and  his 
truth,  his  mercy  and  his  loving-kindness,  nay,  even  his 
jealousy  and  his  wrath,  his  zeal  and  his  indignation — 
these  are  the  different  rays  which  combine  to  make 
up  his  holiness." 

Isaiah's  Conception  of  the  Divine  Majesty.  Holiness 
is  the  basis  of  the  divine  majesty.  To  Isaiah  Jehovah 
alone  was  holy,  which  meant  to  him  that  he  alone 
was  God  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  But  if  so,  he 
w^as  supreme  Lord  over  all  and  exercised  his  sovereignty 
everywhere.  This  is  the  meaning  of  the  song  of  the 
seraphim,  "The  whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory,"  that 
is,  of  his  glorious  manifestation.  "The  whole  earth 
is  full  of  the  signs  of  Jehovah's  sovereignty;  he  dwells 
on  high  exalted  over  all;  he  reigns  supreme  alike  in 
the  realm  of  nature  and  the  sphere  of  human  history ; 
and  the  crash  of  kingdoms,  the  total  dissolution  of  the 
old  order  of  the  Hebrew  world,  which  accompanied 
the  advance  of  Assyria,  is  to  the  prophet  nothing  else 
than  the  crowning  proof  of  Jehovah's  absolute  dominion 
asserting  itself  in  the  abasement  of  all  that  disputes  his 
supremacy." 

Isaiah's  Estimate   of  Himself  and  of  His  Contem- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  103 

poraries.  With  this  subHme  vision  of  the  nature  and 
character  of  Jehovah  there  came  to  the  prophet  a 
clearer  vision  of  himself  and  his  contemporaries,  which 
found  expression  in  the  lament:  "Woe  is  me!  for  I  am 
undone;  because  I  am  a  man  of  unclean  lips,  and  I 
dwell  in  the  midst  c^  a  people  of  unclean  lips." 

Principles  Determining  the  Relation  of  Jehovah 
to  Man.  Another  truth  that  impressed  itself  upon 
Isaiah  at  this  time  was  that  the  relation  of  Jehovah 
to  man  was  determined,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  divine 
character;  on  the  other,  by  the  attitude  of  man  toward 
God.  This  recognition  made  prominent  two  aspects 
of  the  divine  holiness:  in  the  first  place,  love  for  the 
good;  in  the  second,  hatred  for  the  evil  and  sinful.  The 
first  aspect  manifested  itself  in  Jehovah's  attitude  to- 
ward Isaiah,  who  was  yet  sensitive  to  the  divine  in- 
fluence and  apparently  longed  to  be  in  a  proper  con- 
dition to  commune  with  his  God :  his  sin  was  removed, 
and  he  was  appointed  a  messenger  of  Jehovah.  The 
same  aspect  appears  in  the  promise  that  a  holy  seed 
will  be  preserved  (verse  13).  The  other  aspect  is  seen 
in  the  announcement  of  judgment  upon  the  stubborn 
people. 

Contents  of  Isaiah's  Inaugi^ral  Vision.  To  sum  up, 
the  truths  impressed  upsn  Isaiah  in  the  vision  are: 
(i)  The  holiness  of  Jehovah;  (2)  The  majesty  of  Je- 
hovah; (3)  The  corruption  and  stubbornness  of  his 
contemporaries ;  (4)  The  ethical  basis  of  the  relation  of 
Jehovah  to  Israel  and  the  world ;  (5)  The  certainty  of  an 
awful  judgment;  (6)  The  preservation  of  a  remnant; 
(7)  This  remnant  is  to  be  the  seed  of  a  new  Israel. 

Significance  of  the  Vision.  The  vision  of  Jehovah 
was  the  inspiration  and  dominating  idea  of  Isaiah's 


I04      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

activity  and  teaching.  It  is  not  strange  in  the  light  of 
such  a  vision  that  his  eyes  were  opened  so  that  he  saw 
the  uncleanness  of  the  people;  nor  is  it  strange  that 
his  standard  of  living  for  himself  and  his  people  was 
raised;  nor  is  it  surprising  that  he  strove  for  forty 
years,  in  the  face  of  untold  obstacles,  to  lift  the  nation 
to  the  pure  heights  of  his  new  ideals.  With  this  sub- 
lime vision  of  God  he  knew  no  sphere  of  life  where  the 
presence  of  Jehovah  might  not  be  felt,  or  where  the 
battle  for  righteousness  might  not  be  fought ;  and  it  was 
his  sole  ambition  to  fight  this  battle  until  the  entire  na- 
tional life  should  be  regenerated,  until  worship  should  be 
so  pure,  commerce  so  clean,  and  politics  so  unselfish 
and  honest  that  all  might  be  offered  as  a  holy  and 
acceptable  service  to  Jehovah. 

Isaiah's  Manifold  Interests  and  Activities.  The 
broad  outlook  of  Isaiah  resulted  in  a  variety  of  interests 
and  activities.  Isaiah  was  a  patient  and  painstaking  ' 
teacher  of  religious  truth,  a  bold  and  fearless  preacher 
of  righteousness,  a  sane  and  courageous  reformer,  a 
keen  and  farseeing  statesman,  a  large-hearted  champion 
of  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  a  divinely  enlightened 
seer  penetrating  the  veil  hiding  the  future  and  antici- 
pating the  glorious  era  when  the  kingdom  of  God,  a  ■ 
kingdom  of  peace  and  righteousness,  would  be  es- 
tablished upon  earth. 

Isaiah  as  a  Teacher  of  Religion.  As  a  religious 
teacher  Isaiah  sought,  first  of  all,  to  impress  upon  the 
minds  and  hearts  of  his  contemporaries  a  more  adequate 
conception  of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah ;  for  i 
he,  like  the  other  prophets,  was  convinced  that  the  ^ 
cause  of  Israel's  apostasy  was  the  lack  of  a  true  knowl- 
edge of  Jehovah.     He  agrees  with  his  predecessors  in 

;    .     / 


I 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  105 

their  religious  conceptions,  but  he  gives  special  em- 
phasis to  two  phases  of  the  divine  character  that  were 
burned  into  his  innermost  soul  during  the  inaugural 
vision,  namely,  the  divine  holiness  and  majesty. 
"Holy,  holy,  holy,"  was  the  cry  which  Isaiah  heard 
from  the  lips  of  the  adoring  seraphim,  and  he  chooses 
the  title  "The  Holy  One  of  Israel"  to  call  attention,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  the  holiness  of  Jehovah;  on  the  other, 
to  the  obligation  resting  upon  Israel  as  the  chosen 
people  of  Jehovah  to  reflect  the  holiness  of  its  God 
in  life  and  conduct.  It  has  already  been  indicated 
what  was  the  content  of  the  divine  attribute  of  holi- 
ness as  Isaiah  conceived  it. 

Why  did  Isaiah  Emphasize  the  Divine  Majesty? 
He  was  led  to  emphasize  the  divine  majesty  by  what 
he  saw  in  the  nation.  "Those  vast  estates  made  by  dis- 
possessing small  holders  from  their  ancestral  holdings, 
those  splendid  palaces  with  their  sumptuous  banquets 
and  riotous  revels,  those  extravagant  wardrobes  and 
costly  jewels  with  which  the  grand  ladies  of  Jerusalem 
adorned  themselves,  those  horses  and  chariots,  those 
forts  and  towers,  those  fleets  and  armies,  of  which  the 
statesmen  boasted  as  impregnable  defenses,  those 
private  chapels  with  their  gold  and  silver  images,  those 
secret  rites  performed  by  cunning  soothsayers  from 
Philistia  and  the  East,  that  reckless  indifference  to 
truth  and  right  and  justice  which  seemed  compatible 
with  the  most  profuse  outward  ceremonies  of  wor- 
ship— what  were  all  these  but  a  deification  of  wealth 
and  power,  and  selfish  pleasure,  and  reckless  ambition, 
an  indolent  defiance  of  the  supreme  majesty  of  Jehovah 
of  hosts?" 

Had  Israel  recognized  the  majesty  of  Jehovah,  these 


io6  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

excesses  would  have  been  impossible ;  but  now  Jehovah 
must  vindicate  his  character,  and  he  will  do  this  by  a 
terrible  manifestation  of  his  sovereignty:  "Enter  into 
the  rock,  and  hide  thyself  in  the  dust,  from  before  the 
terror  of  Jehovah,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  majesty. 
The  lofty  looks  of  man  shall  be  brought  low,  and  the 
haughtiness  of  men  shall  be  bowed  down,  and  Jehovah 
alone  shall  be  exalted  in  that  day"  (2,  lo,  ii).  In  that 
day  he  will  prove  to  the  trembling  and  astonished  peo- 
ple his  paramount  supremacy;  he  will  demonstrate 
that  he  is  a  jealous  God,  who  can  tolerate  no  rival,  and 
who  cannot  be  satisfied  with  a  half-hearted  allegiance. 

This  is  the  conception  of  Jehovah  emphasized  by 
Isaiah,  and  he  believed  that,  if  the  people  could  be  im- 
pressed strongly  enough  with  a  clear  conception  of  the 
holiness  and  majesty  of  Jehovah,  they  would  cease  their 
rebellion,  for  with  the  knowledge  there  would  come  the 
power  to  live  a  life  that,  in  a  measure  at  least,  would 
reflect  the  holiness  of  God. 

The  Service  Acceptable  to  Jehovah.  Isaiah's  teach- 
ing concerning  the  service  acceptable  to  Jehovah  is 
only  the  reflection  of  his  teaching  concerning  the  divine 
character.  To  a  holy  God  a  cold,  heartless,  formal 
service,  without  a  spirit  of  true  devotion  and  the  back- 
ing of  a  righteous  life,  must  be  an  abomination.  Such 
was  the  service  of  Israel,  and  Isaiah  condemned  it  in 
the  strongest  terms  (compare  i.  10-15).  With  Isaiah 
religion  did  not  consist  in  the  performance  of  certain 
ceremonial  acts,  though  acts  of  worship  might  have 
their  proper  place;  nor  in  the  acceptance  of  a  certain 
creed,  though  fixed  beliefs  might  be  of  considerable 
importance;  with  him  religion  was  primarily  a  matter 
of  heart  and  life.     Hence  he  was  convinced  that  the 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  107 

divine  requirements  had  to  do  primarily  with  hfe  and 
conduct,  and  Hfe  in  all  its  aspects  and  relations. 

Isaiah  a  Preacher  of  Right  Living  and  a  Social 
Reformer.  This  being  the  conviction  of  the  prophet, 
he  considered  it  his  chief  duty  to  assist  his  contem- 
poraries toward  realizing  the  lofty  ideals  of  Jehovah 
in  their  own  lives,  in  their  social  relations,  in  the  na- 
tional life,  and  in  their  relations  with  other  nations. 
In  chapters  2-5  we  see  how  as  a  preacher  of  right  living 
and  a  social  reformer  he  endeavored  to  transform  moral 
and  social  conditions  in  Judah.  He  knew  that  a  peo- 
ple's morals  have  greater  influence  in  determining  its 
destiny  than  kings  and  armies.  Therefore,  when  seeing 
himself  face  to  face  with  conditions  which,  unless  a 
remedy  could  be  found,  meant  the  certain  doom  of 
the  nation  (i.  21-23;  3-  12-15;  5-  8-24),  he  roared, 
with  the  voice  of  a  lion,  against  social  and  moral  cor- 
ruption: "Woe  unto  them  that  join  house  to  house,  that 
lay  field  to  field!  .  .  .  Woe  unto  them  that  rise  up 
early  in  the  morning,  that  they  may  follow  strong 
drink;  that  tarry  late  into  the  night,  till  wine  inflame 
them!  .  .  .  Woe  unto  them  that  call  evil  good,  and 
good  evil!  .  .  .  Woe  unto  them  that  are  wise  in  their 
own  eyes,  and  prudent  in  their  own  sight!  .  .  .  Woe 
unto  them  that  are  mighty  to  drink  wine,  and  men  of 
strength  to  mingle  strong  drink;  which  justify  the 
wicked  for  a  reward,  and  take  away  the  innocence 
of  the  guiltless  from  him!  .  .  .  Woe  unto  them  that 
decree  unrighteous  decrees,  and  to  the  writers  that 
write  perverseness!"  (5.  8-24;  10.  i.)  Not  only  did 
he  utter  general  denunciations,  but  when  he  found  it 
necessary  to  attack  individuals  he  did  so  without  fear 
or  hesitation  (22.  i5f?.). 


io8  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Isaiah's  Social  and  Ethical  Ideals.  Isaiah  was  not 
content  with  denouncing  the  present  abuses;  he  was 
equally  anxious  to  hold  before  the  people  lofty  social 
and  moral  ideals,  which  he  constantly  urged  them  to 
attain.  Perhaps  no  better  brief  summary  of  the  ethical 
and  social  principles  which  the  prophet  considered 
essential  to  the  nation's  welfare  is  found  in  the  Book 
of  Isaiah  than  that  in  i.  i6,  17,  "Cease  to  do  evil; 
learn  to  do  well;  be  anxious  about  right  doing;  set 
right  the  oppressor;  help  to  his  right  the  fatherless; 
take  the  part  of  the  widow." 

Isaiah's  Activity  as  a  Statesman.  In  addition  to 
being  a  religious  teacher,  a  preacher  of  righteousness  and 
a  social  reformer,  Isaiah  was  a  statesman.  A  funda- 
mental factor  in  his  attitude  as  a  statesman  was  his 
conception  of  the  mission  of  the  nation.  Nowhere  is 
this  conception  indicated  more  clearly  and  forcefully 
than  in  the  parable  of  the  vineyard  in  5.  1-7.  Among 
other  things  this  parable  teaches  that  the  prophet 
thought  of  the  nation  not  as  a  "chance  conglomeration  of 
individuals,"  with  no  purpose  or  destiny.  He  was  con- 
vinced that  back  of  the  nation  was  God ;  it  was  he  who 
formed  it,  who  nourished  it  and  brought  it  up  (i.  2), 
who  cared  for  it,  who  had  for  it  a  lofty  purpose  and 
mission,  and  who  did  his  utmost  to  prepare  the  nation 
for  its  divinely  appointed  task.  And  this  God  ex- 
pected results  corresponding  to  the  labors  expended ;  if 
these  were  not  forthcoming  judgment  became  in- 
evitable. 

Isaiah's  Attitude  during  the  Syro-Ephraimitic  Crisis. 
This  conception  of  the  nation  and  its  mission  com- 
pelled the  prophet  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the 
external  politics  of  Judah.     While  this  interest  mani- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  109 

fested  itself  throughout  the  greater  part  of  his  min- 
istry, it  is  especially  in  two  crises  of  Judah's  history 
that  he  attempted,  though  without  success,  to  urge  his 
own  foreign  policy  upon  king  and  people.  The  first 
attempt  is  described  in  chapters  7  and  8.  It  occurred 
about  734  B.  C,  a  few  years  after  the  beginning  of 
Isaiah's  prophetic  career.  Rezin  of  Damascus  and 
Pekah  of  Israel  had  united  against  Judah,  purposing 
to  depose  its  king  and  place  upon  the  throne  a  tool  of 
their  own.  The  ultimate  object  of  the  invasion  was 
probably  to  compel  the  southern  kingdom  to  join 
the  other  nations  in  their  efforts  to  resist  the  westward 
march  of  the  Assyrian  armies.  When  the  news  of  the 
advance  of  the  allies  spread,  the  heart  of  the  king 
"was  moved,  and  the  heart  of  his  people,  as  the  trees  of 
the  forest  are  moved  with  the  w4nd."  In  his  con- 
sternation King  Ahaz  saw  no  way  of  escape  but  to 
throw  himself  upon  the  mercy  of  Tiglath-pileser  IV  of 
Assyria.  Desiring  to  allay  the  king's  fear  and  to  pre- 
vent the  carrying  out  of  the  king's  policy,  Isaiah  sought 
an  interview  with  Ahaz. 

Reasons  for  Isaiah's  Opposition  to  the  Policy  of 
AhsLZf  Two  reasons  underlay  the  prophet's  opposition. 
His  inspired  vision  saw  that  both  the  political  and  the 
religious  welfare  of  Judah  demanded  loyalty  to  Jehovah. 
An  appeal  to  Tiglath-pileser  would  destroy  the  in- 
dependence of  Judah,  would  place  her  in  a  position  of 
servitude,  would  open  the  door  for  continued  annoy- 
ances, and  would  sap  the  nation's  resources  through  the 
payment  of  annual  tribute  and  participation  in  the 
Assyrian  wars.  Besides,  the  nation's  higher  interests 
were  at  stake.  Alliances  with  foreign  nations  had 
always  opened  the  way  for  grave  religious  perils;   this 


2IO  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

would  be  ti-ue  again.  In  addition,  Isaiah  considered 
the  very  act  of  entering  an  alHance  a  sign  of  disloyalty 
to  Jehovah.  Isaiah  was  convinced  that  only  a  fearless 
and  calm  reliance  on  Jehovah  could  guide  Judah  safely 
through  the  present  trouble  and  distress.  The  choice 
must  be  made  between  a  policy  of  faith  and  one  of  un- 
belief. 

Isaiah's  Conception  of  Faith.  Isaiah's  conception 
of  faith  is  brought  out  very  clearly  in  three  statements 
on  the  subject,  found  in  7.  9;  28,  16;  30.  15.  From 
these  passages  it  is  evident  that  he  understood  faith 
to  be  a  very  practical  thing,  namely,  a  calm  and 
courageous  reliance  upon  God,  who  is  able  to  prevent 
the  evil  and  to  bring  to  pass  the  good;  such  reliance 
to  result  in  the  non-use  of  any  means  that  might 
seem  a  denial  of  God  or  be  contrary  to  his  will. 

Later  Events  a  Justification  of  the  Prophetic  At- 
titude. It  was  this  kind  of  faith  that  the  prophet 
demanded  of  King  Ahaz  in  this  crisis  of  the  nation's 
history.  Ahaz,  weak,  vain,  and  incompetent,  could 
not  appreciate  such  faith;  he  preferred  an  alliance 
with  Assyria  to  one  with  Jehovah.  Temporary  re- 
lief came,  but  at  what  cost?  The  independence  of 
Judah.  From  this  time  onward  the  kingdom  was 
without  independence,  except  when  Judah  rebelled,  and 
then  she  suffered  severely  for  her  rashness.  Assyria's 
rule  was  followed  for  a  little  while  by  that  of  Egypt; 
it  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  the  Chaldean  supremacy, 
until  finally  state,  city,  and  temple  were  destroyed, 
and  the  people  were  carried  into  exile  to  weep  over 
their  misfortunes  by  the  rivers  of  Babylon.  Thus  later 
events  justified  the  attitude  of  the  prophet-statesman. 
Not  that    Isaiah  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the  ad- 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  iii 

vance  of  Assyria  could  be  checked  permanently,  but 
complications  with  Assyria  might  be  postponed  in- 
definitely. When,  without  Judah's  fault,  such  com- 
plications would  become  inevitable,  it  would  be  time 
enough  to  devise  ways  and  means  that  would  make 
them  of  least  disadvantage  to  Judah. 

Isaiah's  Attitude  during  the  Crisis  of  705-701. 
Isaiah  has  sometimes  been  accused  of  inconsistency 
in  his  foreign  policy,  because  in  a  later  crisis  he  op- 
posed with  all  his  might  the  efforts  to  free  Judah  from 
the  lordship  of  Assyria.  This  accusation  is  due  to  a 
complete  disregard  of  the  changes  in  the  historical 
situation.  About  thirty  years  had  passed.  During  the 
greater  part  of  this  period  Judah  had  remained  loyal 
to  Assyria,  though  throughout  all  the  years  there  had 
been  in  the  nation  an  anti-Assyrian  party,  which  sought 
to  stir  up  a  revolt  against  the  Assyrian  king.  The 
same  party  was  pro-Egyptian  in  its  tendencies,  seek- 
ing to  form  an  alliance  with  the  empire  of  the  Pha- 
raohs. A  crisis  came  about  705 ,  when  a  change  of  kings 
in  Assyria  encouraged  several  of  the  vassal  states  to 
throw  off  the  yoke.  In  Palestine  and  Syria  rejoicing 
was  great.  Isaiah  warned  Judah,  but  the  pro-Egyptian 
party  grew  stronger  and  stronger.  Many  thought 
that  with  the  aid  of  Egypt  the  Assyrian  yoke  might 
easily  be  broken  while  the  new  king,  Sennacherib, 
was  trying  to  restore  order  in  the  east.  It  was  in  this 
crisis,  about  702  or  701,  that  Isaiah  delivered  those 
powerful  appeals,  found  especially  in  chapters  29-31, 
in  which  he  urged  the  people  to  remain  loyal  to  Assyria 
and  to  desist  from  courting  the  favor  of  Egypt.  The 
appeals  fell  upon  deaf  ears.  Again,  later  events 
showed   the  wisdom   of   Isaiah's   attitude.     The   pro- 


112      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Egi'ptian  party  prevailed  and  revolt  against  Assyria 
broke  out.  Chapters  36,37  tell  the  story  of  the  calamity 
that  befell  the  misguided  people.  Had  the  policy  of 
the  prophet-statesman  been  adopted  things  would  have 
been  far  different.  When  finally  conditions  appeared 
hopeless,  appeal  was  made  to  Isaiah,  and  the  greatness 
of  his  character  shows  itself  in  the  readiness  with  which 
he  responded  to  the  cry  of  a  frenzied  king  and  people. 
The  faith  in  Jehovah's  willingness  and  power  to  help 
which  prompted  the  policy  of  734  also  prompted  the 
utterances  of  701. 

The  Redeemed  Remnant.  Though  Isaiah  is  a 
prophet  of  judgment,  he  is  not  a  prophet  of  despair. 
The  present  corruption  of  the  people  made  judgment 
inevitable,  but  from  the  judgment  he  saw  emerge  a 
redeemed  and  purified  remnant,  the  nucleus  of  a  new 
nation,  ready  to  enter  upon  its  glorious  mission  to  man- 
kind. This  hope  finds  expression  in  the  name  of 
Isaiah's  son  Shear-jashuh  (7.3),  which  is  interpreted  in 
10.  20,  21,  "And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day,  that 
the  remnant  of  Israel,  and  they  that  are  escaped  of  the 
house  of  Jacob,  shall  no  more  again  lean  upon  him  that 
smote  them,  but  shall  lean  upon  Jehovah,  the  Holy 
One  of  Israel,  in  truth.  A  remnant  shall  return,  even 
the  remnant  of  Jacob,  unto  the  mighty  God."  The 
salvation  of  a  remnant  is  promised  also  in  4.  3,  4;  i. 
24-27;    6.  13;    8.  16-18;    etc. 

The  Messianic  Kingdom.  The  redeemed  remnant 
will  form  the  nucleus  of  the  new  kingdom  of  God  during 
the  Messianic  era.  Conditions  in  this  kingdom  will 
be  a  reflection  of  the  character  of  Jehovah,  who  will 
be  in  the  midst  of  his  people  (4.  5,  6).  The  most  com- 
plete description  of  the  glories  of  this  kingdom  or  of 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  113 

the  Messianic  era  is  found  in  2.  2-4,  a  passage  which 
may  be  a  quotation  from  an  earlier  prophet.  Four 
features  of  the  future  glory  are  here  emphasized:  (i) 
Zion  will  be  recognized  as  the  center  of  Jehovah's 
universal  dominion;  (2)  The  spread  of  true  religion 
will  be  accomplished  not  by  the  force  of  arms  but 
through  the  moral  influence  going  out  from  Zion;  (3) 
There  is  to  be  no  external  world  power;  the  nations 
will  retain  political  independence;  Jehovah,  not  Israel, 
will  rule  the  world  (compare  also  19.  23-25;  the  na- 
tions that  fail  to  submit  will  be  destroyed) ;  (4)  War 
will  come  to  an  end;  international  disputes  will  be 
settled  by  arbitration,  Jehovah  himself  being  the 
arbiter.  That  the  new  kingdom  will  be  a  kingdom  of 
purity,  peace,  and  righteousness  is  taught  also  in  other 
passages,  for  example,  i.  25-27;  4.  3,  4;  9.  4-7;  11,4-9. 

The  Inviolability  of  Jerusalem.  Closely  connected 
with  Isaiah's  expectation  that  Zion  wuU  be  the  center 
of  the  future  kingdom  of  God  is  his  hope  of  the  inviola- 
bility of  the  sacred  city.  The  clearest  expressions  of 
this  hope  are  found  in  connection  with  the  crisis  of  701, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  event ;  with  rare 
exceptions  it  is  reflected  in  all  the  utterances  of  the 
prophet.  In  this  he  differs  from  his  contemporary 
Micah,  who  taught  that  Jerusalem  should  be  plowed 
like  a  field.  Certainly,  it  follows  from  the  conditional 
character  of  all  prophecy  that,  should  Zion  become 
so  corrupt  that  a  holy  God  could  no  longer  dwell  there, 
it  too  must  be  given  over  to  judgment.  The  disregard 
of  this  condition  by  later  generations  caused  much 
trouble  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 

The  Nature  and  Character  of  the  Messianic  King. 
In  the  picture  of  2.   2-4  Jehovah  himself  is  repre- 


114      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

sented  as  ruling  in  Zion.  There  are,  however,  several 
passages  (9.  1-7;  11.  1-5;  32.  i)  in  which  Isaiah  prom- 
ises the  advent  of  an  ideal  ruler,  who  will  rule  over  the 
new  kingdom  in  the  place  of  Jehovah.  This  king  is 
described  as  a  descendant  of  David,  who  will  be  en- 
dowed with  extraordinary,  superhuman  qualities  that 
will  equip  him  for  his  God-appointed  task.  According 
to  II.  2  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  will  rest  upon  him  and 
funiish  him  with  virtues  of  various  kinds.  Six  are 
enumerated,  which  may  be  grouped  in  three  pairs  of 
two  each:  the  first  pair  intellectual,  the  second  prac- 
tical, the  third  religious.  Wisdom  and  understanding, 
or  discernment,  are  the  first  two.  The  ideal  ruler  will 
possess  the  ability  to  discern  and  estimate  things 
correctly,  and  the  moral  and  intellectual  qualifications 
to  make  proper  use  of  this  knowledge.  The  next 
group  includes  counsel,  that  is,  the  ability  to  find  ways 
and  means  and  adapt  them  to  the  proper  ends  and  the 
ability  to  make  right  resolutions  at  the  proper  time, 
and  might,  that  is,  the  power  to  carry  out  his  plans  and 
resolutions.  These  two  qualities  furnish  the  basis  for 
two  of  the  names  in  9.  6,  "Wonderful  Counselor, 
Mighty  God,"  literally,  "a  wonder  of  a  counselor,  a 
God  of  a  hero."  The  remaining  terms,  "knowledge" 
and  "fear,"  are  both  to  be  connected  with  "of  Jeho- 
vah." The  new  ruler  will  possess  the  knowledge  of 
Jehovah  and  the  fear  of  Jehovah.  The  former  denotes 
insight  into  the  character  of  Jehovah  and  his  claims 
upon  men;  the  second,  which  is  the  common  Old 
Testament  expression  for  piety,  means  a  reverential 
attitude  that  will  result  in  loving  obedience. 

Character  of  the  Reign  of  the  Messianic  King.    The 
character  of  the  new  king's  rule  is  also  described  by 


THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH  115 

Isaiah.  The  two  titles,  "Everlasting  Father,  Prince 
of  Peace,"  in  9.  6,  describe  it  as  paternal  and  peaceful. 
The  succeeding  verse  also  declares  that  to  peace  there 
will  be  no  end,  and  that  the  king  will  rule  in  justice  and 
righteousness.  The  poor  and  the  needy  will  be  the 
objects  of  his  special  care  (11.  4).  In  all  his  actions  he 
will  be  guided  by  a  right  attitude  toward  Jehovah  and 
continued  reliance  upon  him. 

The  Foreshadowing  of  the  Church.  From  the  pas- 
sages mentioned  it  is  seen  that  Isaiah's  hope  for  the 
future  centered  not  in  the  nation  as  a  whole,  but  in  a 
small  faithful  nucleus.  In  this  he  agrees  with  his 
predecessors,  but  Isaiah  goes  beyond  them  in  organ- 
izing the  faithful  into  a  group  of  disciples  and  devoting 
himself  to  their  instruction  after  he  had  failed  with 
king  and  people  (8.  i6ff.).  "The  formation  of  this 
little  community  was  a  new  thing  in  the  history  of 
religion.  Till  then  no  one  had  dreamed  of  a  fellow- 
ship of  faith  dissociated  from  all  national  forms,  main- 
tained without  the  exercise  of  ritual  services,  bound 
together  by  faith  in  the  divine  word  alone.  It  was  the 
birth  of  a  new  era  in  the  Old  Testament  religion,  for 
it  was  the  birth  of  the  conception  of  the  church,  the 
first  step  in  the  emancipation  of  spiritual  religion  from 
the  forms  of  political  life — a  step  not  less  significant 
that  all  its  consequences  were  not  seen  till  centuries 
had  passed  away." 


CHAPTER  VI 
MICAH 

THE  PERSON  AND  LIFE  OF  THE  PROPHET 

Isaiah  and  Micah.  A  few  years  after  Isaiah  en- 
tered upon  his  prophetic  career  there  appeared  another 
prophet  in  Judah,  by  the  name  of  Micah.  Both  cher- 
ished lofty  conceptions  of  the  character  of  Jehovah 
and  of  the  obhgations  resting  upon  his  people,  and 
both  had  firmly  established  convictions  concerning 
the  nature  and  ultimate  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of 
God.  A  comparison  of  the  utterances  of  the  two  men 
also  brings  out  resemblances  in  style,  thought,  topics, 
and  even  in  phrases;  but  the  contrasts  between  the 
two  in  origin,  training,  and  sphere  of  activity  are 
equally  marked.  The  one  was  a  city  prophet,  of  high 
social  standing  and  the  counselor  of  kings;  the  other, 
a  simple  country  man,  bom  of  obscure  parentage  and 
in  close  touch  and  sympathy  with  the  peasant  class. 

The  Home  of  Micah.  For  information  concerning 
the  prophet  Micah  we  are  dependent  almost  exclusively 
upon  the  book  bearing  his  name.  From  it  we  learn 
that  he  was  a  Morasthite  (i.  i),  that  is,  an  inhabitant 
of  Moresheth,  a  village  probably  identical  with  More- 
sheth-gath  in  i.  14.  This  verse  suggests  that  it  was 
near  the  city  of  Gath.  Jerome  refers  to  it  as  a  small 
village  near  Eleutheropolis,  about  twenty-five  miles 
southwest  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  Philistine  border. 
Nothing  is  said  of  his  family.     His  parents  seem  to 

ii6 


THE  PROPHET  MICAH  117 

have  been  pious  and  ardent  worshipers  of  Jeho\^ah; 
at  least,  the  name  given  to  the  son,  Micah,  in  its  fuller 
form,  Micaiah  (which  means,  Who  is  like  Jehovah?) 
appears  to  contain  a  confession  of  faith  on  their  part. 

The  Date  of  Micah's  Activity.  Outside  of  the 
Book  of  Micah  the  prophet  is  mentioned  only  in  Jer. 
26.  18,  19.  From  that  passage  it  would  seem  that 
Micah  was  responsible,  in  part  at  least,  for  the  reforma- 
tion under  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  18.  4),  Neither  the  be- 
ginning nor  the  close  of  Micah's  activity  can  be  definitely 
dated.  Chapter  i .  i  assigns  his  ministry  to  the  reigns 
of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah — in  round  numbers, 
to  the  years  between  740  and  700.  That  Micah  prophe- 
sied in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  is  affirmed  also  in  Jer. 
26.  18,  19,  where  Mic,  3.  12  is  quoted.  The  words 
quoted  are  so  closely  connected  with  the  preceding 
verses  that  they  carry  with  them  the  entire  third  chap- 
ter; and  certain  striking  similarities  between  it  and 
chapters  i  and  2  place  it  almost  beyond  doubt  that 
all  three  chapters  come  from  approximately  the 
same  period.  But  internal  evidence — for  example, 
I.  6 — makes  it  clear  that  i.  iff.  belongs  *to  the  years 
immediately  preceding  the  fall  of  Samaria,  which,  ac- 
cording to  2  Kings  18.  2,  occurred  in  the  sixth  year  of 
Hezekiah.  Internal  evidence,  therefore,  would  seem  to 
support  that  part  of  the  testimony  of  the  title  which 
assigns  the  activity  of  Micah  to  the  reign  of  Hezekiah. 

The  book  contains  no  positive  evidence  that  Micah 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  the  two  earlier  kings, 
but  the  utterances  in  6.  i — 7.  6,  which  by  many  are 
assigned  to  the  reign  of  the  successor  of  Hezekiah, 
Manasseh,  seem  to  find  a  most  suitable  occasion  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz,  or  perhaps  even  that  of  Jotham ;  hence 


ii8  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  Micah  began  to 
prophesy  about  735  B.  C,  and  that  his  ministry  con- 
tinued until  about  700  B.  C.  The  conditions  in  Judah 
during  this  period  are  described  above,  on  p.  75ff. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF   MICAH 

Arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Micah.  The  Book  of 
Micah  falls  naturally  into  three  parts:  Chapters  i  and 
2;  chapters  3-5;  and  chapters  6  and  7,  each  part 
beginning  with  "Hear  ye."  Each  division  contains  a 
description  of  the  present  corruption,  an  announce- 
ment of  imminent  judgment,  and  one  or  more  pictures 
of  a  bright  and  glorious  future.  It  would  be  erroneous, 
however,  to  suppose  that  the  three  parts  represent 
three  connected  discourses  delivered  to  the  people  on 
three  different  occasions.  They  are  rather  three  col- 
lections of  the  essential  contents  of  the  oral  utterances 
of  the  prophet  during  his  entire  ministry.  The  prin- 
ciple of  arrangement  is  not  chronological,  but,  in  a 
broad  sense,  logical;  that  is,  the  collector  or  collectors 
kept  in  mind  the  general  scheme — corruption,  judg- 
ment, salvation  of  a  remnant,  promise — but  within 
the  general  scheme  the  separate  utterances  were  ar- 
ranged with  less  care  and  without  the  introduction  of 
connecting  links.  As  a  result  abruptness  in  transition 
is  frequent,  and  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  exact 
line  of  thought. 

Announcement  of  Judgment  upon  Israel  and  Judah, 
Chapter  i.  The  first  part  begins  with  an  announce- 
ment of  judgment  upon  Israel  and  Judah  (i.  2-16). 
It  opens  with  a  sublime  apostrophe  to  the  nations  of  the 
earth  and  a  magnificent  picture  of  the  approach  of 
Jehovah  in  judgment  (2-4).  Samaria  will  be  laid  in 
ruins  on  account  of  her  sins  (5-7).    In  time  destruction 


THE  PROPHET  MICAH  119 

will  also  come  upon  Judah  (8-16).  The  prophet  puts 
the  announcement  to  Judah  in  the  form  of  a  lament 
over  the  fall  of  its  cities  and  towns. 

The  Present  Social  and  Moral  Corruption  the  Cause 
of  the  Judgment,  Chapter  2.  Chapter  2  sets  forth 
the  causes  that  make  the  judgment  announced  in 
chapter  i  inevitable.  It  opens  with  a  woe  upon  the 
unjust  nobles:  They  have  robbed  others,  but  their 
ill-gotten  gain  will  be  taken  from  them  (1-4).  The 
prophet  foresees  that  an  attempt  will  be  made  on  the 
part  of  the  people  and  false  prophets  to  silence  him  by- 
declaring  his  utterances  to  be  absurd ;  hence  he  insists 
that  his  message  is  in  perfect  accord  with  the  principles 
underlying  the  divine  government  of  the  world.  God 
promises  good  only  to  him  who  walks  uprightly.  This 
Israel  has  failed  to  do,  therefore  disaster  must  come 
(5-8).  There  is  no  escape  from  the  wrath  of  Jehovah: 
as  they  have  driven  the  poor  from  their  homes  so  they 
will  be  driven  from  their  possessions  into  exile  (9,  10). 
The  prophet  next  describes  the  kind  of  prophet  they 
would  like  to  hear,  one  who  promises  peace  and  pros- 
perity and  flatters  the  self-righteous  hypocrites  (11). 
This  Micah  cannot  do.  He  can  see  nothing  but  disaster 
in  the  immediate  future,  therefore  his  message  is 
primarily  one  of  judgment  and  doom.  Nevertheless,  he 
too  has  a  message  of  salvation,  though  not  for  the 
immediate  future  nor  for  all  the  listeners,  but  only  for 
the  loyal  worshipers  of  Jehovah.  These,  purified 
through  suffering,  will  be  assembled  again,  Jehovah 
will  redeem  them  and  restore  them  to  their  old  home 
(12,  13). 

The  Present  Degradation  and  the  Inevitable  Doom, 
Chapter  3.     The  second  section,  chapters  3-5,  presents 


I20      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

several  contrasts  between  the  present  degradation  and 
the  future  exaltation.  Chapter  3  furnishes  a  vivid  de- 
scription of  the  present  corruption.  Civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical leaders  alike  disregard  the  principles  of  righteous- 
ness and  equity  and  abuse  the  privileges  of  their  offices 
(1-3).  They  show  no  mercy,  hence  Jehovah  w411  re- 
fuse to  listen  to  them  in  the  hour  of  judgment  (4). 
The  false  prophets  are  largely  responsible  for  the  de- 
cline in  virtue;  they  have  become  mercenary  and  care 
nothing  for  the  truth.  The  priests  also  are  actuated  by 
a  spirit  of  avarice  and  greed.  In  the  face  of  the  wide- 
spread moral  corruption  they  presume  to  rely  upon 
the  favor  of  Jehovah  (5-1 1).  On  account  of  this  fail- 
ure to  do  the  will  of  Jehovah,  Zion  will  be  utterly 
ruined  (12). 

The  Exaltation  of  the  Remnant,  Chapters  4,  5.  But 
the  ruin  will  not  continue  forever.  There  will  come 
a  turn  for  the  better.  A  remnant  will  survive  the 
catastrophe,  and  this  remnant,  restored  to  its  for- 
mer home,  will  be  raised  to  honor  and  glory.  This 
exaltation  is  the  subject  of  chapters  4  and  5.  How- 
ever, the  two  chapters  do  not  form  a  continuous  dis- 
course; they  are  rather  a  collection  of  short  oracles, 
all  dealing  with  the  same  subject,  but  describing  the 
Messianic  age  from  various  points  of  view  and  coming 
from  different  periods  of  the  prophet's  activity. 

The  Present  Distress  and  the  Future  Glory,  Chapter 
4.  The  first  utterance  contains  a  sublime  picture  of 
Zion's  future  glory  as  the  center  of  the  universal  re- 
ligion (4.  1-5).  When  the  era  of  Messianic  felicity 
dawns  the  dispersed  of  Israel  will  share  in  its  glory. 
Jehovah  will  bring  back  and  heal  a  remnant  of  those 
whom  he  cast  off  in  his   anger.     The  remnant  will 


THE  PROPHET  MICAH  121 

develop  into  a  strong  and  powerful  nation,  and  will 
no  more  suffer  from  weak  and  incompetent  rulers, 
for  Jehovah  himself  will  rule  forever  (6-8). 

The  distant  future,  the  prophet  is  convinced,  will  be 
all  brightness  and  glory,  but  in  the  immediate  future 
he  can  see  nothing  but  gloom  and  despair.  He  beholds 
the  impending  destruction;  yea,  he  already  hears 
the  lamentation  (9) ;  nevertheless,  Jehovah  will  re- 
deem his  people  from  all  their  enemies  (10).  In  the 
next  oracle  the  prophet  again  starts  from  the  present 
calamity,  and  ends  with  a  promise  of  complete  victory 

(11-13)- 

The  Messianic  King  and  the  Blessings  of  the  Mes- 
sianic Age,  Chapter  5.  In  5.  i  the  prophet  returns 
once  more  to  the  condition  now  present  or  imminent; 
but  immediately  he  rises  from  the  troublesome  present 
to  the  glorious  future,  which  he  describes  with  a  fullness 
not  seen  elsewhere  in  the  book.  He  introduces  the 
personal  Messiah,  who  is  to  be  born  in  Bethlehem  (2). 
Though  temporary  distress  is  inevitable,  the  sequel 
will  be  glorious  (3).  Like  a  kind  shepherd  the  Messiah 
will  feed  his  flock  (4).  He  is  peace  personified,  and  his 
rule  will  be  peace.  Should  an  enemy  attack  the  king- 
dom of  God  there  will  be  a  superabundance  of  leaders 
to  hasten  to  its  defense  (5,  6).  In  the  succeeding 
verses  the  prophet  considers  the  restored  nation's  re- 
lation to  other  peoples.  To  some  it  will  dispense  bless- 
ings and  prove  a  source  of  increased  vitality  (7) ;  to 
others  it  will  bring  terror  and  destruction  (8).  He 
prays  that  Israel  may  be  successful  in  its  conquests 
(9).  When  the  people  have  learned  to  rely  upon 
Jehovah  he  will  destroy  all  implements  of  war  (10, 
11),  and  remove  all  witchcraft  and   soothsayers  (12). 


122      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Idolatry  will  come  to  an  end  (13,  14),  and  Jehovah  will 
be  the  avenger  of  his  people  (15). 

Jehovah's  Controversy  with  Israel,  6.  1-8.  With 
6.  I  begins  a  new  series  of  utterances.  The  prophet 
pictures,  in  dramatic  forni,  a  judicial  contest  between 
Jehovah  and  his  people.  Jeho\'cih  himself  presents 
the  accusation.  He  calls  attention  to  the  countless 
blessings  bestowed  upon  the  nation  during  its  past 
history,  and  complains  that  his  loving  care  has  been 
met  with  basest  ingratitude  (1-5).  Against  this  ac- 
cusation the  people  seek  to  defend  themselves  by  ex- 
pressing their  willingness  to  do  anything  to  win  the 
divine  favor.  If  they  have  fallen  short  it  is  due  to  their 
ignorance  concerning  the  real  requirements  of  Jehovah 
(6,  7).  To  this  plea  reply  is  made  that  ignorance  is 
inexcusable,  since  the  demands  of  Jehovah  have  been 
made  known  again  and  again  (8). 

The  Desperate  Condition  of  the  People,  6.  9 — 7.  6. 
With  verse  9  begins  a  new  accusation  and  denunciation. 
Jehovah  denounces,  in  righteous  indignation,  the  injus- 
tice, oppression,  and  violence  prevalent  in  the  capital, 
and  threatens  judgment  in  the  form  of  an  invasion, 
which  will  result  in  the  devastation  of  the  land  (9-16). 

The  accusation  is  continued  in  7.  1-6,  but  now  the 
prophet  is  the  speaker.  He  describes  the  desperate 
condition  of  the  people:  anarchy,  injustice,  judicial 
corruption  everywhere;  even  the  tenderest  ties  of 
family  relation  are  disrupted. 

Prayer  for  Deliverance  and  its  Answer,  7.  7-20. 
In  verse  7  the  penitent  community,  now  sitting  in 
darkness,  pleads  for  deliverance,  and  expresses  the 
assurance  that  Jehovah  will  bring  it  out  into  the  light 
and  give  it  the  victory  over  the  arrogant  enemy  (7-10). 


THE  PROPHET  MICAH  123 

To  this  expression  of  confidence  Jehovah,  or  the  prophet 
in  his  name,  responds  with  words  of  encouragement: 
the  loyalty  of  the  petitioner  will  be  rewarded  with  a 
glorious  restoration  (11-13).  In  verse  14  the  prophet 
becomes  the  spokesman  of  the  people.  He  pleads  for 
the  fulfillment  of  the  promise  of  restoration,  and  re- 
joices in  the  terror  and  humiliation  of  the  nations  of 
the  world  (14-17). 

The  book  closes  with  a  doxology.  The  author, 
reveling  in  the  thought  of  a  glorious  future,  sings  a 
hymn  in  honor  of  Jehovah,  w^ho  alone  is  God;  he 
celebrates  the  divine  attributes  of  loving-kindness, 
compassion,  and  faithfulness,  about  to  be  manifested 
in  the  deliverance  promised  by  Jehovah  (18-20). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  MICAH 

Jehovah  and  His  Requirements.  The  teaching  of 
Micah  is  simple  and  forceful.  In  many  respects  it  re- 
sembles that  of  his  predecessors.  His  theology  in- 
sists on  the  holiness  of  Jehovah  and  the  universality 
and  righteousness  of  the  divine  government  of  the 
world.  He  deals  with  all,  including  Israel,  on  the  basis 
of  ethical  principles.  As  long  as  his  people  do  right 
they  will  enjoy  the  divine  favor  (2.  7),  but  if  they  turn 
against  him  they  must  suffer  punishment.  Jehovah's 
good  will  is  secured  not  by  a  careful  observance  of  the 
ritual,  or  by  the  bringing  of  sacrifices,  whatever  their 
intrinsic  value,  but  by  a  life  in  accord  with  the  princi- 
ples of  righteousness,  by  the  diligent  practice  of  kind- 
ness and  brotherliness,  and  by  a  living  fellowship  with 
God  in  the  spirit  of  humility,  which  should  ever  govern 
the  intercourse  of  weak  and  sinful  man  with  a  holy  and 
perfect  God  (6.  6-8). 


124      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

The  Inevitable  Doom.  The  prophet  did  not  deceive 
himself  into  an  expectation  that  his  high  moral  and 
religious  ideals  would  be  sufficiently  attractive  to  bring 
about  a  complete  transformation  in  the  whole  nation. 
He  foresaw  that  the  majority  would  continue  in  re- 
bellion and  that,  therefore,  a  destructive  blow  must 
fall  which  would  make  an  end  of  the  national  existence 
of  both  Israel  and  Judah  (i.  2-16;  2.  10;  3.  12;  etc.). 
The  Messianic  Age.  But  he  was  just  as  strongly 
convinced  that  a  remnant  would  be  saved,  and  that 
under  the  Messianic  king  this  remnant  would  enjoy  a 
life  of  permanent  peace  and  prosperity.  In  his  de- 
scription of  the  Messianic  king  Micah  passes  beyond 
Amos  and  Hosea,  and  agrees  essentially  with  Isaiah, 
except  that  he  adds  the  birthplace  of  the  ideal  ruler 
(5.  2-6).  Through  the  moral  influence  going  out  from 
the  remnant  (5.  7)  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  will 
spread  to  all  nations,  and  many  will  flock  to  him  for 
instruction  (4.  1-4). 

Greatness  of  the  Eighth  Century  Prophets.  Never 
again  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and  one 
might  almost  say,  never  again  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race,  arose  within  one  brief  lifetime  (755-735 
B.  C.)  four  men  who  left  a  greater  and  more  permanent 
impression  upon  the  religious  development  of  the 
human  race  than  did  the  four  divinely  inspired  leaders 
Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah.  They,  more  than 
any  other  set  of  men  during  the  Old  Testament  period, 
were  responsible  for  the  preservation  and  growth 
of  the  religion  out  of  which  sprang,  at  a  later  time, 
Christianity. 


CHAPTER  VII 
JEREMIAH 

POLITICAL  CONDITIONS  IN  JUDAH  DURING  THE  CENTURY 
PRECEDING  THE  FALL  OF  JERUSALEM 

The  Reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon.  In  the  open- 
ing section  of  Chapter  V  the  poHtical  history  of  Judah 
is  traced  to  the  death  of  Hezekiah,  some  time  between 
697  and  686.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Manasseh. 
According  to  2  Kings  21.  i  the  new^  king  was  only 
twelve  years  old- when  he  began  to  reign,  and  he  con- 
"EtfiueGrupon  the  throne  for  fifty-five  years.  Thf  in- 
formation concerning  political  events  in  his  reign  is 
meager.  He  seems  to  have  continued  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  Assyrian  kings,  though  2  Chron.  ^^.  11  states 
that  he  brought  upon  himself  the  wrath  of  the  king  of 
Assyria  and  was  carried  in  chains  to  Babylon.  On  the 
whole,  the  political  situation  seems  to  have  remained 
as  it  was  under  Hezekiah. 

About  641  B.  C.  Manasseh  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Amon,  who  reigned  two  years.  During  his  rule 
also  the  political  situation  seems  to  have  remained 
unchanged.  For  some  reason  dissatisfaction  broke 
out  among  the  king's  servants,  and  he  was  assassinated, 
perhaps,  indirectly  at  least,  through  the  influence  of  the 
prophetic  party,  which  was  in  disfavor  both  with 
Amon  and  with  Manasseh. 

The  Reign  of  Josiah.  Josiah,  a  boy  eight  years 
old,  came  to  the  throne  about  639  B.  C.     Fifty  verses 

"5 


126      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

in  2  Kings  22,  23  are  devoted  to  his  reign,  but  little 
is  said  concerning  political  events.  He  seems  to  have 
remained  loyal  to  his  Assyrian  lord  to  the  very  end, 
even  when  the  latter's  prestige  had  commenced  to 
vanish;  and  this  loyalty  cost  him  his  life.  When  it 
became  evident  that  Assyria  was  doomed,  her  old- 
time  rival,  Egypt,  was  anxious  to  claim  a  part  of  her 
territory  before  anyone  else  could  do  so.  The  energetic 
Necoh  "went  up  against  the  king  of  Assyria  to  the  river 
Euphrates."  Prompted  by  a  sense  of  duty,  and  trust- 
ing in  Jehovah,  for  whose  worship  he  had  done  so 
much,  "king  Josiah  went  against  him,"  hoping  to  check 
his  advance.  In  the  old  battlefield  of  Palestine,  the 
Plain  of  Esdraelon,  near  the  old  town  of  Megiddo,  they 
met  and,  in  the  simple  words  of  the  author  of  Kings, 
"  Pharaoh-necoh  slew  him  at  Megiddo,  when  he  had 
seen  him." 

The  Supremacy  of  Egypt.  Jehoahaz  was  raised  to 
the  throne  in  Josiah's  place,  but  his  reign  was  of  short 
duration.  After  three  months  Necoh  ordered  him 
brought  to  Riblah,  on  the  Orontes,  where  the  Egyptian 
king  had  established  his  court;  there  he  was  put  in 
chains  and  sent  to  Egypt.  An  older'  son  oFJdsiah, 
Eliakim,  whose  name  was  changed  to  Jehoiakim,  was 
made  king,  and  an  exorbitant  tribute  was  imposed 
upon  the  land.  Thus  Judah  passed  from  the  con- 
trol of  Assyria  to  that  of  Egypt.  With  Jehoiakim 
the  half-heathenish  party  returned  to  power,  which 
inaugurated  a  series  of  religious  and  political  errors 
and  crimes  that  resulted,  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  in  the  complete  destruction  of  Judah  and 
Jerusalem. 

The  Supremacy  of  Chaldea.  The  supremacy  of  Egypt 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  127 

continued  for  about  four  years.  After  the  capture 
of  Nineveh  the  Chaldean  empire,  which  had  grown 
up  around  Babylon,  laid  claim  to  the  greater  part  of 
Assyria's  territory,  including  Syria  and  Palestine. 
In  a  battle  fought  in  604  near  Carchemish,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates, Egyf)t_  was  defeated,  and  its  rule  in  Palestine 
came  to  an  end,  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  victor,  was 
compelled  by  the  death  of  his  father  to  return  home 
before  he  could  follow  up  his  victory,  but  by  the 
year  600  his  rule  was  firmly  established  in  the 
west. 

The  Reigns  of  Jehoiakim  and  Jehoiachin.  Jehoiakim 
paid  tribute  until  597,  when,  probably_trustirigln  the 
promises'^^'Egypt,'  he  refused  to  pay  and  revolted. 
The  other  states  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  instead  61  y^ 
joining  with  him,  overran  his  territory  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  their  Chaldean  lord.  Death  removed  the  king 
before  he  saw  the  final  results  of  his  folly. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eighteen-year-old  son 
Jehoiachin,  who  was  not  able  to  avert  the  disaster. 
The  cities  outside  of  Jerusalem  were  abandoned  to 
their  fate.  In  vain  the  Judseans  looked  to  Egypt  for 
help.  At  last  a  division  of  the  Chaldean  army  laid 
siege  to  the  capital.  Seeing  that  resistance  was  futile, 
the  king  and  his  court  surrendered.  Jehoiachin  was 
carried  to  Babylon,  where  he  was  treated  witli  rhiich 
kindness  and  consideration  during  the  latter  part  of 
his  exile  (2  Kings  25.  27-30;  Jer.  52.  31-34).  With_ 
him  went  about  ten  thousand  of  the  best  people  of 
Judah.  To  pay  the  heavy  tribute  exacted  by  the 
conqueror  palace  and  temple  were  looted._  Only  the 
pillars,  the  brazen  sea,  the  vases,  and  the  less  valuable 
vessels  were  left  behind  (Jer.  27.  19,  20). 


128      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

The  Reign  of  Zedekiah  and  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem. 

Over  the  people  that  remained  in  the  land  Nebuchad- 
nezzar placed  as  his  vassal,  Mattaniah,  a  younger  son 
of  Josiah,  whose  name  he  changed  to  Zedekiah.  The 
situation  called  for  a  ruler  who  could  organize  the 
turbulent  elements  left  behind  and  hold  them  to  a 
wise  and  consistent  policy.  Unfortunately,  the  new 
king  lacked  moral  strength  and  courage.  Althougli 
his  intentions  seem  to  have  been  good,  he  proved  only 
a  tool  in  the  hands  of  his  plotting  advisers. 

Finally,  in  588,  against  the  persistent  plea  of  Jere- 
miah, Judah  revolted  again.  Ammon  and  Tyre~Ienr 
their  aid,  and  appeal  was  made  to  Egypt  for  support. 
Nebuchadnezzar  gave  the  rebellion  his  immediate 
attention,  and  early  in  the  year  587  his  armies  sur- 
rounded Jerusalem.  Temporarily  the  siege  had  to 
be  raised,  to  meet  an  Egyptian  army;  but  when  the 
latter  retreated  the  Chaldeans  returned.  The  siege 
lasted  a  year  and  a  half  In  July,  586,  the  besiegers 
forced  an  entrance  into  the  city.  Zedekiah  sought  to 
escape  but  was  overtaken.  He  was  earned  before 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  at  Riblah,  where  he  was 
compelled  to  witness  the  slaughter  of  his  children; 
then  his  eyes  were  put  out,  and  he  was  carried  into 
exile.  Many  others,  especially  of  the  better  classes, 
were  slain  or  taken  into  captivity.  Then  the  city 
was  pillaged  and  set  on  fire. 

Brief  Rule  of  Gedallah.  Some  of  the  poorer  in- 
habitants were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  land.  With 
them  were  left  a  few  nobles  whose  loyalty  could  be 
trusted.  Over  the  little  state  Gedaliah  was  appointed 
governor.  Among  his  stanchest  supporters  was  the 
jDTophet  Jeremiah.      Since  Jerusalem   was.  destroye3", 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  129 

Mizpah^  about  five  miles  to  the  northwest,  was  selected 
as  the  seat  of  government. 

For  about  two  months  (Jer.  41.  i)  all  went  well. 
Fugitives  returned,  agricultural  pursuits  were  re- 
sumed, and  old  hopes  were  beginning  to  revive  when 
suddenly,  by  an  act  of  treachery,  all  prospects  were 
ruined.  The  petty  kings  of  the  surrounding  nations 
looked  with  envy  upon  the  newborn  prosperity; 
finally  the  king  of  Ammon  persuaded  a  certain  Ishmael 
to  slay  Gedaliah  and  his  attendants.  Afraid  that  the 
death  of  the  governor  would  be  speedily  avenged  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  _surviving  Jews  fled  to  Egypt, 
against^  the  advice  of  Jeremiah.  Thus  the  kingdom 
of^udah  came  to  an  end. 

"The  Scythian  Invasion.  During  the  period  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  paragraphs  three  important 
political  events  took  place  outside  of  Judah,  which 
vitally  affected  the  fortunes  of  the  latter  and  were  not 
without  influence  on  the  prophetic  utterances  of  the 
age.  The  first  in  point  of  time  was  the  Scythian  in- 
vasion. The  Scythians  were  a  non-Semitic  race  of 
barbarians  which  swept  in  great  hordes  over  Western 
Asia  during  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  They  went 
down  the  Mediterranean  coast  as  far  as  Egypt,  and  at 
a  later  time  had  a  prominent  part  in  the  destruction 
of  Nineveh.  The  Book  of  Zephaniah  and  some  of 
the  early  utterances  of  Jeremiah  reflect  the  terror  that 
was  caused  by  the  advance  of  these  hordes. 

The  Fall  of  Assjnia.  The  second  important  event 
was  the  capture  of  Nineveh  and  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  During  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of~iCing 
Ashurbanapal  of  Assyria  (668-626)  the  empire  was 
slowly  going  to  pieces.     After  his  death  the  end  ap- 


I30  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

preached  more  rapidly.  In  625  the  Chaldean  Nabo- 
polassar  established  an  independent  kingdom  in  Baby- 
lon. With  the  Scythians  pressing  from  the  north 
and  the  new  Chaldean  power  from  the  south,  Assyria 
was  in  serious  peril.  Finally,  about  610,  Nabopolassar 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  Scythians,  who  ad^ 
vanced  against  Nineveh.  The  struggle  continued  for 
two  years.  The  attacking  forces  met  determined 
resistance.  At  last  a  breach  was  made  in  the  north- 
eastern comer  of  the  wall,  and  the  city  was  taken, 
plundered,  and  burned.  With  this  catastrophe  the 
Assyrian  world  power  came  to  an  end.  _  Nahum  is  the 
prophet  of  Nineveh's  doom. 

The  Rise  of  the  Chaldean  Empire.  Closely  con- 
nected with  the  decline  and  fall  of  Assyria  is  the  rise 
of  the  Chaldean  or  Neo-Babylonian  power.  The  city 
of  Babylon  had  been  for  many  centuries  the  seat  of  a 
mighty  empire.  In  time  Assyria  had  overshadowed 
and  finally  annexed  it.  On  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  there  lived  a  people  called  the  Chaldeans,  who 
had  caused  much  trouble  to  both  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria. During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century 
one  of  their  number,  Nabopolassar,  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing himself  master  of  Babylon,  and  finally  declared  his 
independence  of  Assyria.  When  Nineveh  fell  this 
Chaldean  power  divided  the  Assyrian  territory  with 
the  Scythians,  and  then  entered  upon  new  conquests. 
It  reached  the  height  of  its  power  and  splendor  under 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  reigned  from  604  to  562.  During 
his  reign  Jerusalem  fell,  and  the  Jews  were  carried 
into  exile.  The  early  campaigns  of  the  Chaldean 
armies  are  reflected  in  the  prophecies  of  Habakkuk, 
while  Jeremiah,  who  was  a  witness  of  all,  the  events 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  131 

mentioned,  watched  the  final  destruction  of  the  hoi}' 
city. 

MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 

The    Religious    Reaction    under    Manasseh.      The 

moral  and  religious  conditions  in  Judah  during  the 
eighth  century  are  described  on  p.  75!!.  Hezekiah  at- 
tempted reforms,  but  he  by  no  means  succeeded  in 
removing  all  abuses.  Under  Manasseh  a  reaction 
swept  over  the  land,  which  threatened  the  very  ex- 
istence of  Jehovah  religion.  The  idols  torn  down  by 
Hezekiah  were  carefully  restored,  the  Asherim  were 
again  set  up,  and  the  enchanters  and  soothsayers 
exercised  their  old  influence;  even  human  sacrifices 
were  offered  (2  Kings  21.  6),  The  worship  of  other 
deities  was  introduced  in  the  temple  (2  Kings  21.  3,  5; 
23.  II,  12),  and  the  popular  worship  became  a  strange 
combination  of  foreign  and  native  cults. 

Religious  Conditions  during  the  Early  Years  of 
Josiah*s  Reign.  Amon  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  father,  so  that  the  religious  outlook  was  exceedingly 
dark  when,  in  639,  Josiah  came  to  the  throne.  For- 
tunately, the  latter  seems  to  have  been  under  prophetic 
influence  from  the  beginning,  and,  assisted  by  the 
faithful  nucleus  within  the  nation,  he  undertook  a 
sweeping  religious  reform,  which  reached"  its  culmiha-' 
tion  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign.  When  Zepha- 
niah  preached  and  the  early  prophecies  of  Jeremiah 
were  delivered  this  reform  was  still  in  the  future ;  and 
from  the  utterances  of  these  two  prophets,  as  also  from 
2  Kings  22,  23,  we  may  gather  some  idea  of  the  coriupt 
State  of  religion  before  621  B.  C.  The  practices  re- 
stored by  Manasseh  were  continued.  The  Baalim^ were 
worshiped    and    the  high  places  were  flourishing;    a 


4 


132      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

half-hearted  Jehovah  worship,  which  was  in  reahty 
idolatry,  was  widespread,  while  great  multitudes  had 
turned  entirely  from  following  Jehovah.  Jeremiah  _ 
sums  up  his  indictment  against  the  nation  in^2.  j:3ff^ 
and  one  of  the  two  evils  condemned  is  apostasy  from... 
Jehovah:  "They  have  forsaken  me,  the  fountain  of 
living  waters,  and  hewed  them  out  cisterns,  broken 
cisterns,  that  can  hold  no  water."  Idolatry  had  crept 
into  the  temple  itself  (7.  30).  In  addition  to  open 
apostasy  the  prophets  beheld  a  provoking  skepticism. 
When  the  cruel  and  godless  Manasseh  was  allowed  to 
sit  undisturbed  upon  the  throne  for  half  a  century  or 
more,  many  began  to  question  the  interest  of  Jehovah 
in  the  affairs  of  the  nation;  they  began  to  say  in  their 
hearts,  "Jehovah  will  not  do  good,  neither  will  he  do 
evil"  (Zeph,  i.  12;  compare  also  Jer.  5.  12).  Many 
became  practical  atheists,  who  denied  the  justice,  or 
even  the  reality,  of  the  divine  government  of  the 
world. 

In  the  face  of  this  heart-apostasy  the  people  con-_ 
tinued  to  trust  in  the  efhcacy  of  the  outward  forms  of 
religion.  They  offered  sacrifice,  and  felt  secure  in  the 
thought  that  the  temple  of  Jehovah  was  in  their  midst'" 
(Jer.  7.4).  Conditions  could  not  be  otherwise,  since  the 
majority  of  the  religious  leaders  had  become  mis- 
leaders.  Zephaniah  complains,  "Her,  .prophets^  are 
light  and  treacherous  persons;  her  priests  have  pro- 
faned the  sanctuary,  they  have  done  violence  to  the 
law"  (3.  4).  The  people  would  listen  to  these  false 
guides  (Jer.  8.  8ff.),  while  paying  no  attention  to  the 
true  prophets  (7.  28). 

The  Reforms  of  Josiah.  -  The  discovery  of  the  book 
of  the  law  in  621  produced,  for  a  time  at  least,  a  change 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  133 

for  the  better.  After  Josiah  had  assured  himself  that 
the  book  correctly  expressed  the  will  of  Jehovah, 
it  was  read  to  the  people,  and  king  and  people  entered 
into  a  solemn  covenant  to  obey  its  injunctions.  The  de- 
tails of  the  reforms  inaugurated  are  described  in  2  Kings 
23  and  2  Chron.  34,  35.  Certainly,  this  religious  refor- 
mation, like  all  others  instituted  by  state  authority, 
affected  first  the  externals  of  religion ;  but  the  thirteen 
peaceful  years  which  followed  were  improved  to  im- 
press the  fundamental  principles  underlying  it  upon 
the  hearts  and  consciences  of  the  people. 

The  Religious  Reaction  under  Jehoiakim.  The 
death  of  Josiah  in  608  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  im- 
mediate realization  of  the  ideals  of  the  prophets.  The 
heathenish  party,  which  had  been  in  the  background 
for  some  years,  hastened  to  point  to  the  calamity  as 
a  divine  judgment  upon  the  king's  iconoclastic  zeal 
to  change  old  conditions  and  practices;  and  with  the 
common  people,  who  were  accustomed  to  associate 
prosperity  with  the  divine  favor,  and  calamity  with 
the  divine  wrath,  such  argument  would  have  con- 
siderable weight.  Jehoahaz  may  have  been  the  choice 
of  the  prophetic  party,  but  when  he  was  displaced 
by  Jehoiakim,  a  cruel,  selfish,  and  luxury-loving  mon- 
arch (J^r.  22.  iff.),  the  heathenish  party  returned  to 
power.  Then  conditions  became  again  as  they  were 
before  the  reform  of  Josiah  and  continued  to  be  so 
until  Jerusalem  was  destroyed.  "The  people  again 
went  after  other  gods,  or  trusted  in  the  externals  of 
religion,  while  the  prophets  of  Jehovah  were  persecuted 
'and  even  slain.  (Jer.  26.  20-23).  No  wonder  that  even 
good  men  began  to  question  the  reality  of  a  divine 
Providence  over  Judah  (Hab.  i.  2ff.). 


134  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

The  Moral  Conditions  as  Portrayed  by  the  Seventh 
Century  Prophets.  Moral  conditions  during  tlie 
seventh  century  were  equally  bad.  The  Old  Testament 
contains  no  contemporaneous  description  of  moral 
conditions  during  the  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon, 
but  we  may  assume  that  they  were  practically  iden- 
tical with  those  reflected  in  the  prophecies  coming  from 
the  period  preceding  the  reform  of  621.  Zephaniah 
furnishes  a  vivid  picture  of  conditions  in  his  day. 
Social  injustice  and  moral  coniiption  were  widespread.:. 
"Woe  to  her  that  is  rebellious  and  polluted,  to  the 
oppressing  city!". (3.  i.)  "Her  princes  in  the  midst 
of  her  are  roaring  lions ;  her  judges  are  evening  wolves ; 
they  leave  nothing  till  the  morrow"  (3.  3).  "They 
rose  early  and  corrupted  all  their  doings"  (3.  7).  Lux- 
ury and  extravagance  might  be  seen  on  every  hand,  and 
fortunes  were  heaped  up  by  unjust  oppression  of  the 
poor:  "The  princes,  and  the  king's  sons,  and  all  such 
as  are  clothed  with  foreign  apparel.  .  .  .  Those  that 
leap  over  the  threshold,  that  fill  their  master's  house 
with  violence  and  deceit"  (i.  8,  9), 

Nahum  is  silent  concerning  conditions  in  Judah; 
but  Habakkuk  refers  to  them  again ;  and  he  does  so  in 
a  way  that  shows  the  prevalence  of  violence  and  op- 
pression. The  widespread  corruption  in  Judah  is  the 
cause  of  the  prophet's  perplexity.  He  cannot  har- 
monize the  apparent  indifference  of  Jehovah  in  the 
presence  of  deep-seated  corruption  with  his  conception 
of  the  divine  character  (i.  2-4). 

Jeremiah,  who  was  the  contemporary  of  all  three 
prophets,  confirms  their  complaints.  "Run  ye  to  and 
fro,"  he  says,  "through  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  and 
see  now,  and  know,  and  seek  in  the  broad  places  thereof, 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  135 

if  ye  can  find  a  man,  if  there  be  any  that  doeth  justly, 
that   seeketh   tinith.  .  .  .  And   though   they   say,   As 
Jehovah  Hveth;    surely  they  swear  falsely"   (5.   i,  2). 
Falsehood,  faithlessness,  oppression,  covetousness,  in- 
justice, violence,  murder,  and  other  vices  and  crimes        ^ 
met  the  prophet  on  every  hand  (5.  26-28).     Speaking       ^^^^ 
of  Jerusalem  he  declares,  "She  is  wholly  oppression  in  )4<    ^ 
the  midst  of  her.     As  a  well  castelh'Torth 'it's~waters,  7 

so  she  casteth  forth  her  wickedness:  violence  and  de- 
struction is  "Heard  in  her;  before  me  continually  is 
sickness  and  wounds"  (6.  6,  7).  Similar  indictments 
are  brought  in  6.  13,  where  Jeremiah  complains  that 
even  prophets  and  priests  deal  falsely,  9.  2ff.;  34.  8ff. ; 
also,  by  imphcation,  in  7.  sff.  Indeed,  the  whole  book 
reflects  the  compassion  of  Jeremiah  for  a  people  that 
has  become  utterly  corrupt  and  is  therefore  doomed  y^. 
to  destruction. 

~  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH 

The  Personal  Life  of  Jeremiah.  The  latter  part 
of  the  seventh  century  produced  four  prophets  in  Judah : 
Jeremiah,  Zephaniah,  Nahum,  and  Habakkuk.  The 
greatest  of  these,  and  the  one  enjoying  the  longest 
period  of  activity,  was  Jeremiah.  He  was  of  priestly^ 
descent,  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  of  the  priests  in  Anathoth 
(compare  i   Kings  2.   26),  a  town  about  three  miles 

northeast  of  Jerusalem.     It  is  not  improbable  that  he 

continued  to  live  in  Anathoth  even  after  he  became 
a  prophet  (11.  21;  12.  6;  32.  7),  though  his  prophetic  J^ 
ministry  was  exercised  chiefly  in  Jerusalem.^  The 
prophetic  call  came  to  him  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 
Josiah,  that  is,  in  626.i^nd  he  continued  to  prophesy 
until  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  ^86.  During  the 
Chaldean   crisis   he   persistently    opposed  jthe  Revolt. 


136  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

against  Nebuchadnezzar.  In  the  face  of  persecution 
and  wrongful  imprisonment  he  insisted  that  submission^ 
\  .  to  the  king  of  Babylon  was  the  only  hope  of  safety,_ 
For  this  he  was  regarded  a  traitor  to  his  country, 
and  on  more  than  one  occasion  he  barely  escaped  with 
his  life.  In  recognition  of  his  loyalty  he  was  afterward 
rewarded  by  the  Chaldeans  with  being  permitted  to 
choose  between  going  with  the  exiles  to  Babylonia  and 
remaining  with  his  kinsmen  in  Judah.  He  chose  the 
latter,  perhaps  because  he  hoped  that  under  a  sym- 
pathetic governor  he  might  yet  succeed  in  winning  a 
remnant  to  his  higher  ideals  of  religion  and  Hfe.  After 
the  assassination  of  Gedaliah  he  opposed  flight  to 
Jf^  Egypt,  but  in  vain;  and  the  fugitives  compelled  him 
to  accompany  them.  He  continued  his  ministries 
^'  there  until,  according  to  tradition,  he  met  a  martyr'? 
^ /v  death  at  the  hands  of  his  countrymen.  "There,"  says 
Monteiiore,  "amid  mournful  surroundings  and  obsti- 
nate idolatry,  his  teaching  spumed  and  misunderstood, 
his  country  waste  and  desolate,  the  curtain  falls  upon 
the  great  prophet's  life  in  darkness  and  desolation." 

The  Call  of  Jeremiah.  Jeremiah  hesitated  to  yield 
to  the  divine  call,  pleading  as  an  excuse  his  extreme 
youthfulness  (i .  6) ;  but  Jehovah  persisted,  and  finally 
the  young  man  obeyed  (i.  7-10).  The  task  set  before 
him  was  not  an  easy  one,  for  his  ministry  was  to 
include  the  nations;  nor  was  it  very  inspiring,  for^ 
V  ,'  denunciation,  judgment,  and  destruction  were  to  pre- 
\  dominate  in  his  message.  Four  verbs  are  used  to  call 
attention  to  the  dark  side  of  his  ministry,  only  two  to 
the  bright  side.    No  wonder  the  prophet  hesitated. 

The  Peculiar  Temperament  of  Jeremiah.    However, 
it  was  not  only  the  difficulty  of  the  task,  but  also  a' 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  137 

natural  timidity,  that  caused  Jeremiah  to  shrink  from 
the  prophetic  office.  His  was  also  a  highly  emotional 
temperament;  he  was  buoyed  up  by  success,  de- 
pressed by  failure,  always  conscious  of  the  heavy 
burden  Jehovah  had  imposed  upon  him.  Frequently 
he  was  almxost  overcome  by  despair,  and  in  such  mo- 
ments he  bitterly  complained  of  his  fate,  and  wished 
that  he  might  be  released  from  his  office:  "Oh  that  !_ 
had  in  the  wilderness  a  lodging  place  of  wayfaring 
men ;  that  I  might  leave  my  people,  and  go  from  them!"  ^"T  ^ 
(9.  2  ;  compare  also  20.  7-9.)  Sometimes  he  gives  way 
to  despair  to  the  extent  of  cursing  the  day  on  which 
he  was  bom  (20.  14-18;  15.  10),  and  challenging  the 
justice  of  the  divine  government  (12.  iff.).  Even  more 
startling  are  the  invocations  of  vengeance  upon_  his 
persecutors  (18.  19-23;  compare  11.  i8ff. ;  15.  i5ff. ; 
17.  18;    20.  II,  12). 

The  Hardships  Endured  by  Jeremiah  and  their 
Effects  upon  Him.  Expressions  like  these  show  that 
even  the  noblest  Old  Testament  saints  fell  short  of  the 
ideals  held  up  by  Jesus.  Temporarily  Jeremiah's 
better  self  seems  to  have  succumbed  to  feelings  of  per- 
sonal revenge.  And  this  cannot  appear  so  very  strange 
when  we  consider  the  awful  hardships  he  was  called 
upon  to  endure.  His  ministry  was  a  continuous  mar- 
tyrdom. He  stood  almost  alone;  we  know  of  only  one 
faithful  adherent,  namely,  Baruch ;  he  was  to  form 
no  domestic  ties  (16.  i);  his  life  was  in  constant  dan- 
ger; prophets  and  priests  opposed  him  (20.  iff.;  23. 
9ff. ;  2^.  I ;  29.1);  his  neighbors  at  Anathoth  and  even 
his  relatives  were  agains±_him  Xj  I •  21;  12.  6;  20.  10); 
he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  barely  escaped  with  his 
life  (37.   i4ff. ;    38.  iff.).     Surely  the  provocation  to 


138      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

wrath  and  vengeance  was  great.  And  yet  it  would 
not  be  fair  to  ascribe  the  expressions  referred  to  en- 
tirely to  a  feeling  of  personal  vindictiveness.  Jeremiah 
was  the  prophet  of  Jehovah;  those  who  attacked  him 
by  that  very  act  attacked  his  God ;  and  his  curses  are 
as  much  curses  upon  the  enemies  of  Jehovah  as  they  are 
curses  upon  the  prophet's  persecutors,  called  forth  by 
an  intense  loyalty  to  his  God  and  the  desire  to  see  the 
divine  righteousness  triumph. 

The  Faith  ^nd  Courage  of  Jeremiah._  Jeremiah's 
cries  of  despair  must  not  cause  us  to  overlook  the 
brighter  and  nobler  aspects  of  his  character.  A  man 
who,  in  the  face  of  all  the  harrowing  experiences 
recorded  in  the  book,  remained  at  his  post  and  con- 
tinued to  proclaim  with  no  uncertain  sound  the  will  of 
Jehovah,  must  be  a  man  of  sublime  faith  and  courage. 
The  prophet's  courageous  conduct  in  the  presence  of  all 
kinds  of  dangers  becomes  only  more  remarkable  in 
the  light  of  the  natural  and  temperamental  timidity, 
evidences  of  which  may  be  seen  in  many  periods  of  his 
life.  "Is  not  the  victor>^  of  a  constitutionally  timid 
and  shrinking  character  a  nobler  moral  triumph  than 
that  of  a  man  who  never  knew  fear — who  marches 
to  the  conflict  with  others  with  a  light  heart,  simply 
because  it  is  his  nature  to  do  so — because  he  has  had  no 
experience  of  a  previous  conflict  with  self?'*  Jeremiah 
is  a  shining  example  of  those  believers  whose  weak- 
ness, by  the  grace  of  God,  has  been  made  strong. 

The  Tenderness  and  Compassion  of  Jeremiah.  The 
tenderness  and  compassion  with  which  Jeremiah 
watches  the  approach  of  the  nation's  doom  remind 
one  of  Hosea:  "My  anguish,  my  anguish!  I  am  pained 
at  my  very  heart;   my  heart  is  disquieted  in  me;    I 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  139 

cannot  hold  my  peace;  because  thou  hast  heard,  O 
my  soul,  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  the  alarm  of  war" 
(4.  19;  8.  18,  21,  22;  9.  i).  This  tenderness  of  heart 
made  him,  as  it  did  Hosea,  in  a  peculiar  manner  the 
messenger  of  Jehovah's  outraged  love.  "We  may 
recognize  in  Jeremiah's  character,"  says  Kirkpatrick, 
"a  special  fitness  for  his  mission.  That  tender,  shrink- 
ing, sympathetic  heart  could  more  fully  feel,  and  more 
adequately  express,  the  ineffable  divine  sorrow  over 
the  guilty  people,  the  eternal  love,  which  was  never 
stronger  than  at  the  moment  when  it  seemed  to  have 
been  metamorphosed  into  bitter  wrath  and  implacable 
vengeance." 

Jeremiah's  Methods  of  Work.  The  Book  of  Jere- 
miah enables  us  to  get  a  fairly  good  idea  of  the  prophet's 
methods  of  work.  _He  selected  the  most  frequented 
places  and  the  most  public  occasions  for  Jhe  delivery 
of  his  discourses:  the  gate  of  the  temple  on  a  festival 
day,  when  people  from  all  parts  of  Judah  had  come 
to  worship  (7.  2) ;  the  gates  of  the  city,  through  which 
king  and  people  must  pass  (17.  19);  the  court  of  the 
temple  (19.  14;  26.  2;  35.  10);  the  royal  palace  (22.  i); 
the  common  dwelling  place  of  the  Rechabites  (35.  2). 
But  he  was  not  content  with  these  public  discourses; 
he  sought  to  impress  his  message  more  deeply  by  the 
performance  of  symbolical  acts;  for  example,  the  hid- 
ing of  the  girdle  by  the  Euphrates  (13.  iff.),  the  break- 
ing of  the  earthen  vessel  (19.  iff.).  The  purchase  of  a 
field  at  Anathoth  (32.  6ff.)  and  the  test  of  the  Recha- 
bites (35.  iff.)  were  also  intended  to  enforce  his  teach- 
ing. The  activity  of  the  potter  (18.  iff.)  fumishedhim 
with  a  message  to  his  people.  Thus  in  season  and  out 
of  season,  by  common  or  uncommon  methods,  Jere- 


¥f(- 


140      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

miah  sought   to   impress   upon   his   countrymen   the 
truth  of  Jehovah  as  he  understood  it. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  JEREMIAH 

Composition  of  the  Book  of  Jeremiah.  The  man- 
ner in  which  at  least  the  greater  portion  of  the  Book  of 
Jeremiah  was  written  down  is  set  forth  in  chapter  36. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  that  is,  about  604, 
Jeremiah  dictated  the  prophecies  which  he  had  de- 
Hvered  previously  to  his  scribe  Baruch,  who  inscribed 
them  in  a  roll.  In  the  following  year,  in  theTiinth  ' 
month,  he  read  this  roll,  at  the  command  of  Jere- 
miah, in  the  house  of  Jehovah  before  the  people. 
The  report  of  it  finally  reached  the  ears  of  the  king, 
who  ordered  it  read  in  his  own  presence.  After  the 
reading  of  a  few  pages  the  king  seized  the  roll,  cut  it 
up,  and  cast  it  into  the  fire.  Whereupon  Baruch,  at 
the  dictation  of  the  prophet,  rewrote  the  roll,  adding 
some  utterances  not  included  in  the  first  collection. 
Probably  neither  the  first  nor  the  second  roll  contained 
more  than  the  substance  of  Jeremiah's  discourses. 
The  utterances  delivered  subsequently  to  the  fifth  year 
of  Jehoiakim  were  added  at  a  later  time,  perhaps  also 
by  Baruch.  The  exact  connection  of  this  early  col- 
lection with  the  present  Book  of  Jeremiah  is  a  matter 
of  dispute. 

Arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Jeremiah.  The  book, 
which  contains  besides  the  messages  of  the  prophet 
much  biographical  and  other  historical  material,  is 
arranged  by  Delitzsch  in  "nine  groups  or  books  of 
which  each  three,  in  a  certain  sense,  form  a  trilogy": 
^.  The  book  of  the  time  of  Josiah,  or,  of  the  call- 
Tng  and  first  preaching  of  the  prophet,  chapters  1-6. 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  141 

,^  The  book  of  the  time  of  Jehoiakim,  or,  the  preaching 
at  the  gate  of  the  temple,  in  the  cities  of  Judali,  tinU"' 

in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  especially  concerning  the 

idolatry  of  the  people,  chapters  7-12.  ^\^.  The  book  of 
the  irrevocal)lc  cur§e,  belonging  to  the  time  of  Jehoia- 
3hin,  chapters  13-20.  4.  The  book  against  the  shep- 
herds of  the   people,   without  chronological   arrange- 

'  ment,  chapters  21-25.  <^.  The  book  of  the  conflict  of 
Jeremiah  with  the  false  prophets,  belonging  partly  to 
the  reign  of  Jehoiakim,  and  partly  to  the  first  years  of 
Zedekiah,  chapters  26-29.  6.-  The  book  of  the  restora- 
tion of  Israel,  without  chronological  arrangement, 
chapters  30-33.  7.  The  book  of  the  accounts  of  the 
unbelief  and  skepticism  of  the  kings  and  the  people 
of  Israel,  accounts  belonging  to  the  time  of  Jehoiakim, 
and  encompassed  by  incidents  of  the  time  of  Zedekiah, 
chapters  34-38.  J^.  The  book  of  the  destinies  of  the 
people  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  chapters 
39-45.  9.  The  book  of  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
nations,  a  decade  of  oracles,  beginning  with  Egypt  and 
ending  with  Babylon,  belonging  partly  to  the  time  of 
Jehoiakim,  and  partly  to  the  time  of  Zedekiah,  chap- 
ters 46-51. 

The  Call  of  Jeremiah  and  the  First  Visions  of  Doom, 
Chapter  i.  Chapter  i  may  be  called  the  introduction 
to  the  whole  book.  The  title  (1-3)  is  followed  by  an 
account  of  the  call  of  Jeremiah  to  be  a  prophet  unto 
the  nations,  "to  pluck  up  and  to  break  down  and  to 
destroy  and  to  overthrow,  to  build  and  to  plant"  «^ 
(4-10).  In  two  visions — the  almond  tree  (ij,  12)  and'-^^ 
the  boilingi"caMron~Xi3-i6) — he  sees  prefigured  the 
approaching  doom.  His  task  will  not  be  an  easy 
one,  but  Tehovah  will  giye^hini  the  victory  (17-19). 


142  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Israel's  Former  Love  and  Present  Apostasy,  Chap- 
ter 2.  The  general  subject  of  chapters  2-6,  probably 
a  summary  of  Jeremiah's  teaching  during  the  early 
years  of  his  ministr^^  is  the  judgment  ujDon  Judah 
for  its  rebellion  against  Jehovah.  Chapter  2  con- 
trasts the  people's  fonxier  love  with  their  preseir*"' 
apostasy.  In  the  beginning  Israel  was  pure  and  holy 
(1-3),  but  soon  it  forsook  Jehovah,  "the  fountain  of 
living  waters,  and  hewed  out  cisterns,  broken  cisterns, 
that  can  hold  no  water"  (4-13).  As  a  result  severe 
judgments  have  fallen  upon  the  people  (14-17),  but 
without  bringing  them  to  their  senses.  They  still  trust 
in  Egypt  and  Assyria  and  in  gods  that  cannot  help 
(18-28),  while  they  refuse  to  heed  the  divine  efforts 
to  bring  them  to  repentance.  Self -complacently  they 
assert  their  innocence,  therefore  an  awful  judgment 
will  fall  upon  them  (29-37). 

1/    N)C^.i^  Judah's   Ultimate   Return   to   Jehovah,   3.  i — 4.   4. 

y  \  '\fudah  has  been  hke  a  faithless  spouse,  and  her  ex- 
pressions of  repentance  have  been  insincere  (3.  1-5). 
The  continuation  of  this  section  seems  to  be  in  verses 
T  gK.  In  spite  of  the  past  and  present  faithlessness  the 
backslider  will  repent  and  return,  and  thus  become  a 
source  of  blessing  to  the  nations  of  the  earth  (3.  19 — 
4.4)- 

Chapter  3.  6-18  is  an  oracle  by  itself.     Judah  has 

^  w-  x^  seen  the  fate  which  overtook  Israel  on  account  of  her 

^  '^  \  sins,  but  has  not  profited  by  the  observation  (6-10); 
therefore  Israel  is  less  guilty  (11)  and  will  enjoy  God's 
pardon  first  (12);  only  later  will  mercy  be  shown  to 
Judah  (13-18). 

The   Imminent    Doom    of    Judah    and   Jerusalem, 
4.  5 — 6.  30.    Chapters  4.  5 — 6.  30  foiTn  a  series  of  warn- 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  143 

ings.  A  foe  approaching  from  the  north  is  about  to 
administer  punishment  to  Judah.  Jeremiah's  patriotic 
soul  is  deeply  stirred;  he  urges  the  people  to  take 
refuge  in  the  fortresses,  while  he  bewails  at  the  same 
time  the  siege  of  the  holy  city  (5-18).  The  whole  land 
is  made  desolate  (19-29),  and  there  is  no  one  to  de- 
liver (30,  31). 

In  chapters  5  and  6  the  scene  changes  to  Jerusalem. 
Jehovah  would  be  glad  to  save  the  city,  but  he  cannot, 
for  all,  high  and  low  alike,  are  corrupt  (5.  1-9).  The 
destroyer  is  to  have  full  sway ;  only  he  will  not  be  per- 
mitted to  make  a  complete  end  of  Judah  and  Jerusa- 
lem (10-19).  The  people  are  spiritually  blind  and 
rebellious  at  heart,  therefore  Jehovah  must  punish 
(20-29).  The  religious  leaders  are  largely  responsible 
for  the  present  corruption  (30,  31).  Chapter  6  de- 
scribes the  judgment  as  still  nearer:  Jerusalem  is  in  V  ^ 
danger,  and  its  inhabitants  must  flee  (1-5);   the  moral  ' 

corruption  and.  nbstinapy  makp  Hpgft-iir>fi'r>r.    i'r>A^n>QhlJ 

(6-2  iy;  The  chapter  closes  with  a  new  announcement 
of  judgment  (22-26)  and  a  description  of  the  moral 
degeneracy  responsible  for  it  (27-30). 

Condemnation  of  the  Hypocrisy  of  Judah,  Chap- 
ters 7-10.  In  chapters  7-10  judgment  is  pronounced 
upon  the  hypocrisy  of  Judah.  Standing  at  the  gate 
of  the  temple  (7.  i,  2),  Jeremiah  warns  the  people 
against  putting  their  trust  in  the  temple ;  the  only  way 
of  escape  is  repentance  and  the  practice  of  righteous- 
ness (3-7).  Unless  they  repent  Zion  will  be  destroyed  ■>, 
like  Shiloh  of  old,  and  Judah  will  go  the  way  of  Israel  ' 
(8-20).  In  the  rest  of  chapter  7  and  in  chapter  8  the 
appeal  is  made  anew.  Jehovah  has  made  known  to 
them  his  requirements  through  the  prophets  (21-26), 


144  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

but  they  have  refused  to  listen  (27,  28),  therefore  the 
land  shall  become  a  waste  (29-34).  Even  the  bodies 
of  the  dead  will  be  dishonored  (8.  1-3).  The  people 
rush  headlong  to  destruction,  showing  less  sense  than 
the  birds  of  heaven  (4-7);  they  boast  in  their  own 
wisdom  but  they  are  foolish,  and  soon  all  manner  of 
calamities  shall  befall  them  (8-17).  Gladly  would  the 
prophet  see  the  salvation  of  his  people,  and  his  heart 
comes  nigh  breaking  as  he  comes  to  realize  that  there 
is  no  physician  (8.  18 — 9.  i).  Syice  he  cannot^elp^he 
wishes  that  he  might  leave  his  people,  for  they  are 
hopelessly  corrupt,  and  therefore  doomed  (9.  2-22 ;  lo^ 
17-22).  In  agony, of  spirit  he  once  more  intercedes 
for  his  people  (10.  23-25).  Chapter  10.  17  is  the 
natural  continuation  of  9.  22.  Between  the  two  verses 
are  three  oracles  independent  of  one  another  and  of 
their  context.  The  first  (9.  23,  24)  points  out  that 
Jehovah  is  the  only  true  object  of  confidence;  the 
second  (9.  25,  26)  announces  judgment  upon  the  un- 
circumcised  in  heart  and  flesh;  the  third  (10.  1-16) 
warns  the  house  of  Israel  against  putting  its  trust  in 
idols ;  Jehovah  alone  has  the  power  to  help. 

Disregard  of  Jehovah's  Will  the  Cause  of  Judah's 
Overthrow,  Chapters  11,  12.  A  new  section  begins 
with  II.  I .  Jeremiah  is  commissioned'  to  exhort  the 
inhabitants  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  to  "hear  the  words 
of  this  covenant" — probably  the  law  promulgated  by 
King  Josiah  in  621 — ^"and  do  them"  (1-8).  When  at  a 
later  time  they  return  to  their  iniquity  he  reaffirms 
the  certainty  of  the  divine  judgment  (9-13).  He  is 
warned  not  to  intercede  for  his  people  (14),  for  their 
destruction  is  decreed  (15-17).  In  verses  i8ff.  Jere- 
miah relates  how  he  discovered  a  plot  of  his  townsmen 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  145 

at  Anathoth  against  his  life  and  how  he  announced 
judgment  upon  the  conspirators  (18-23).  When  the 
judgment  is  delayed  he  complains  to  Jehovah  (12.  1-4), 
but  is  informed  that  severer  tests  of  his  faith  are  yet 
to  come  (5,  6), 

In  12.  7-13,  belonging  probably  to  a  later  period  in 
Jeremiah's  life,  follows  a  poem  bewailing  the  desola- 
tion of  the  land,  but  a  hope  of  restoration  is  held  out  to 
Judah  and  her  neighbors,  provided  they  will  repent 
and  turn  to  Jehovah  (14-17). 

The  Corruption  of  the  People  and  the  Approaching 
Judgment,  Chapter  13.  Chapter  13  deals  with  the 
corruption  of  the  people  and  the  approaching  judgment. 
The  symbolical  act  of  hiding  the  girdle  was  _in^^  .'yc^ 

to  illustrate  the  hopeless  condition  of  the  people  (i-i  i) ;  / 
therefore  they  must  sufifer  punishment  (12-14).  The 
prophet  once  more  exhorts  the  people  to  repentance 
(15-17);  but  convinced  that  his  words  will  not  be 
heeded  he  immediately  proceeds  to  announce  the  fall 
of  the  throne  and  the  horrors  of  exile  (18-27). 

Intercession  in  Vain ;  Jeremiah  Comforted  by  Jeho- 
vah, Chapters  14,  15.  Chapters  14-17  may  be  grouped 
together,  though  the  connection  between  the  separate 
utterances  is  rather  loose.  A  drought  is  distressing 
Judah  (14.  1-6),  in  which  Jeremiah  sees  an  expression 
of  the  divine  wrath  (7).  He  prays  for  mercy  (7-9), 
but  is  informed  that  the  sins  of  the  people  make  inter- 
cession in  vain  (10-12).  His  plea  that  the  people  have  ^  ^> 
been  led  astray  by  the  prophets  (13)  does  not  alter  the 
attitude  of  Jehovah,  who  replies  that  prophets  and 
people  will  perish  (14-18).  When  the  prophet  renews 
his  prayer  (19-22)  he  is  told  that  not  even  the  prayers 
of  Moses  or  Samuel  could  avert  the  doom  (15.  1-9). 


146      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Whereupon,  in  a  bold  and  striking  poem,  he  complains 

of  his  fate,  but  is  assured  that  Jehovah  will  stand  by 

him  and  give  him  the  victory  in  the  end  (10-21). 

Jehovah  the  Only  Hope  of  Israel,  Chapters   16,  17. 

^r^        Jeremiah  is  forbidden  to  marry  and  raise  a  family 

'^^       (16.   I,   2),  for  nothing  but  disaster  and  death  is  m 

store  for  the  nation  (16.  3 — 1 7.4).    Jehovah  is  the  only 

hope  of  Israel  (5-13).    The  prophet  prays  that  Jehovah 

will  deliver  him  from  his  enemies  and  visit  judgment 

upon  his  persecutors  (14-18).     Chapter  17.  19-27  is  a 

plea  for  strict  Sabbath  observance. 

Discourses  Suggested  by  the  Sight  of    the  Potter's 

Wheel  and  the  Broken  Jar,  Chapters  18,  19.    Chapters 

18,  19  contain  discourses  suggested  by  the  sight  of  the 

potter's  wheel  and  the  broken  jar.     Prophecy  is  con- 

j  j^  ^       ditional,  its  fulfillment  depending  upon  the  people's 

^      -;;;:::^ttTtude  toward   the   prophetic    message    (18.    i-io); 

^^OS-Y  ^^^^^  'the  repentance  of  the  hearers  may  avert  the 

^fi^c        threatened   disaster   (11);    on  the   other  hand,   their 

stubbornness  will  make  doom  inevitable  (12-17).    The 

people  resent  Jeremiah's  teaching  and  plan  to  do  him 

harm  (18),  and  the  prophet  prays  that  Jehovah  will 

frustrate  their  schemes  and  execute  vengeance  upon 

them  (19-23).     By  the  symbolical  act  of  breaking  an 

earthen  vessel  in  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom  the 

prophet    illustrates    the    completeness    of   the    divine 

judgment   (19.   1-13). 

Jeremiah's  Imprisonment  and  Complaint,  Chapter  20. 
The  repetition  of  the  same  message  in  the  temple  (19. 
v;  14.  15)  leads  to  the  prophet's  imprisonment  (20.  i,  2). 

On  his  release  he  pronounces  a  sentence  of  exile  upon 
Pashur,  who  imprisoned  him,  and  upon  the  whole 
people  (3-6).    The  rest  of  the  chapter  contains  an  out- 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  147 

burst  of  deepest  feelings,  in  which  Jeremiah  bewails  his 
trials,  expresses  the  conviction  that  his  persecutors  will 
get  their  deserts,  and  curses  the  day  of  his  birth  (7-18). 

The  Inevitable  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  21.  i-io. 
Chapter  21.  i-io  records  the  inquiry  of  King  Zedekiah 
concerning  the  outcome  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  and 
Jeremiah's  reply:  It  shall  be  given  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy  and  burned  with  fire. 

Judgments  upon  Contemporary  Rulers,  21.  11 — 23.  8. 
In  chapters  21.  11 — 23.  8  are  recorded  judgments  upon 
several  kings,  who  were  contemporaries  of  Jeremiah. 
The  first  utterance  (21.  11-14)  is  intended  for  the 
"house  of  David"  in  general,  as  an  exhortation  to 
practice  justice.  Chapter  22.  1-9  is  addressed  to  some 
particular  ruler,  not  named.  It  also  is  a  plea  for  the 
execution  of  righteousness  and  justice,  and  a  warning 
against  injustice.  The  prophet  then  bewails  the  fate 
of  Shallum  (Jehoahaz),  who  was  carried  to  Egypt 
after  a  brief  reign  (10-12);  he  contrasts  Jehoiakim's 
oppressive  methods  with  the  beneficent  rule  of  Josiah 
and  pronounces  a  terrible  judgment  upon  him  (13-19),' 
in  a  similar  manner  he  denounces  Jehoiachin  and 
threatens  his  exile  (20-30).  The  condemnation  of  the 
faithless  shepherds  or  rulers  is  summarized  in  23.  i,  2, 
which  is  followed  by  a  promise  of  ultimate  restoration 
and  a  picture  of  the  rule  of  the  ideal  king,  which  will 
form  a  marked  contrast  to  that  of  the  rulers  with 
whom  Jeremiah  was  familiar  (3-8). 

Condemnation  of  False  Prophets,  23.  9-40.  Chapter 
23.  9-40  is  a  condemnation  of  the  false  prophets,  be- 
cause of  their  immoralities  (9-15),  their  unwarranted 
optimism  (16-22),  and  their  deception  of  the  people 
(23-40). 


148      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Vision  of  the  Two  Baskets  of  Figs  and  its  Signifi- 
cance, Chapter  24.  Chapter  24,  which  belongs  to  the 
time  after  the  first  deportation,  contains  the  vision  of 
the  two  baskets  of  figs  (1-3).  By  the  use  of  the  figure 
of  the  good  and  bad  figs  Jeremiah  teaches  that  the 
Jews  who  were  carried  into  exile  with  Jehoiachin  are 
much  better  than  those  who  are  still  in  the  land,  and 
their  ultimate  destiny  will  be  far  happier  (4-10). 

The   Chaldean  Supremacy  to  Continue  for  Seventy 

Years,  Chapter   25.     Chapter  25  belongs  to  the  fourth 

year  of  Jehoiakim,  the  year  in  which  Nebuchadnezzar 

defeated    the    Egyptians    at    Carchemish.      Jeremiah 

declares  that  Judah  and  the  neighboring  nations  will 

\/^        be  subdued  by  the  king  of  Babylon  and  serve  him 

for  seventy  years  (i-ii);    at  the  end  of  that  period 

his  kingdom  will  come  to  an  end  (12-14).     Under  the 

?  ^  figure  of  the  drinking  of  the  wine  of  wrath  he  announces 

l^yfl^y    that  all  the  nations  of  the  then  known  world  will  be 

Vl^i^^^  included  in  the  doom  (15-38). 

Jeremiah's  Preaching,  Imprisonment,  and  Deliver- 
ance ;  Death  of  Uriah,  Chapter  26.     In  the  beginning 
of  Jehoiakim's  reign  Jeremiah  warns  the  people  that, 
y  unless  they  repent,  the  temple  and  the  holy  city  will  be 

'/ycv         destroyed  (26.  1-7).    Whereupon  he  was  seized  by  the 
7-  professional  prophets  and  priests  and  the  people  (8,  9), 

^r^      who  denounced  him  before  the  princes  as  deserving 
^>  death  (10,  11).     After  a  brief  defense  by  the  prophet 

T^^A^  (12-15)  the  princes  and  elders  declared  that  speaking 
''^*2F"      in  the  name  of  Jehovah  is  not  a  crime  (16-19),  ^^^ 
Jeremiah  escaped  death    (24).      Uriah,   a  prophet  of 
Jehovah  like  Jeremiah,  was  not  so  fortunate  (20-23). 

Conflicts    with    False    Prophets,    Chapters    27,    28. 
Chapters  27-29  describe  the  calm  attitude  of  Jeremiah 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  149 

during  the  early  years  of  Zedekiah's  reign.     He  frus- 
trates an  attempt  made  by  the  surrounding  nations  to 
involve  Judah  in  a  revolt  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
insists  that  Jehovah  has  decreed  that  all  the  nations  of  ■ 
the  earth  shall  become  subject  to  the  king  of  Babylon  ' 
(27,  1-15).     Prophets  who  announce  the  speedy  down- 
fall of  Babylon  are  liars,  for  its  conquests  will  continue  - 
(16-22).     The  chief  representative  of  the  lying  proph- 
ets seems  to  have  been  Hananiah,  who  promised  the 
restoration  of  the  first  exiles  within  two  years  (28.  1-4). 
Jeremiah  opposes  him,  and  declares  that  he  will  die 
within  a  year,  because  he  has  spoken  rebellion  against 
Jehovah  (5-16),  which  threat  is  fulfilled  (17). 

Jeremiah's  Letter  to  the  Exiles,  Chapter  29.  The 
promises  held  out  by  the  false  prophets  became 
known  among  the  first  exiles  in  Babylonia  and  caused 
much  unrest.  To  calm  them  Jeremiah  wrote  a  letter 
(29.  1-3),  in  which  he  urged  them  to  settle  down  con- 
tentedly, for  there  would  be  no  restoration  until  the 
seventy  years  had  been  accomplished  (4-23) .  The  letter 
aroused  the  resentment  of  the  false  prophets  among  the 
exiles,  and  one  of  them,  Shemaiah,  sent  word  to  Jeru- 
salem, urging  Jeremiah's  arrest  (24-29),  but  the  latter 
warns  the  exiles  against  putting  any  confidence  in 
Shemaiah's  promises  (30-32). 

Restoration  from  Exile  and  the  Establishment 
of  the  New  Covenant,  Chapters  30,  31.  Chapters 
30-33  contain  a  collection  of  prophecies  dealing  with 
Israel's  restoration  (30.  1-3).  Though  the  present 
crisis  is  severe  (4-7),  Jehovah  will  save  a  remnant  and 
restore  it  to  honor  and  glory  (8-1 1).  Judah's  hurt 
may  seem  incurable,  nevertheless  Jehovah  will  heal__ 
even  the   most   serious   wounds   and   restore  perfect 


I50      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

health  (12-17).  He  will  bring  back  the  captives,  who 
will  be  again  his  people,  and  he  will  be  their  God 
(18-24).  Ephraim  (31.  1-9)  as  well  as  Judah  (10-14) 
will  be  restored,  for  Jehovah  loves  his  people  with  an 
everlasting  love.  Rachel,  now  weeping  over  her  chil- 
dren, may  wipe  her  tears,  for  Ephraim  will  surely 
repent  and  turn  to  Jehovah  (15-19),  and  in  the  end 
Judah  and  Ephraim  will  return  together  (20-30). 
Between  the  restored  nation  and  Jehovah  a  new  cove- 
nant will  be  established,  "a  covenant  which  is  to  con- 
sist not  in  an  external  system  of  laws,  but  in  a  law 
written  in  the  heart,  a  principle  operating  from  within, 
filling  all  men  with  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah,  and 
prompting  them  to  immediate  and  spontaneous  obe- 
dience" (31-34).  The  fulfillment  of  these  promises  is 
as  certain  as  the  ordinances  of  nature  (35-37).  In  the 
new  age  the  city  of  Jehovah  will  expand  in  every 
direction  (38-40). 

Certainty  of  the  Restoration ;  the  Blessings  Awaiting 

the   Purified   Remnant,   Chapters  32,  33.      During  a 

period  of  imprisonment  (32.  1-5)  Jeremiah  purchased 

a  field  in  Anathoth  as  an  expression  of  his  conviction 

of  an  ultimate  restoration    (6-15).     When  his   faith 

began  to  waver   (16-25)   Jehovah  explained   to  him 

the  course  of  events  in  the  near  future:    The  people's 

^  disobedience  will  make  an  exile  inevitable  (26-35),  but 

the  restoration  is  equally  certain  (36-44).    In  chapter 

33  the  prophet  depicts  once  more  the  purification  and 

I       j^.  restoration  of  the  nation  (1-13).     This  accomplished, 

s^^'   the  ideal  ruler  will  appear  (14-18).    The  covenant  will 

^^    f^*    abide  forever  (19-26).  ^ 

^^£%^      The  Doom  of  Jerusalem  Due  to  the  People's  Faith- 
'/r   'V''  lessness,  Chapters  34,  35.    Chapter  34  is  independent 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  151 

of  the  preceding  section.  Zedekiah  is  told  that  the 
city  will  be  taken  and  that  he  will  be  carried  into  exile, 
but  his  life  will  be  spared  (1-7).  The  fate  is  well  de- 
served, because  the  people  have  dealt  treacherously 
with  the  Hebrew  slaves,  whom  they  emancipated  under 
the  stress  of  the  siege,  but  reenslaved  when  the  siege 
was  temporarily  raised  (8-22).  Chapter  35  records 
the  fidehty  of  the  Rechabites  to  their  vows  (i-ii), 
which  the  prophet  contrasts  with  the  people's  lack  of 
fidelity  to  Jehovah  (12-19).  > 

Origin  of  the  Book  of  Jeremiah,  Chapter  36.    The 
long  section  which  follows  (chapters  36-45)  is  almost       ^^J^ 
entirely  of  an  historical  nature  and  has  been  called    C^^  Jf^ 
"A  History  of    Jeremiah."      We  are  told  how  Jere-   v^  \w, 
miah  dictated  his  prophecies  to  Baruch,  who  inscribed "^   f^^ 
them  in  a  roll  (3 6 .  i -5 ) .    At  the  prophet's  command  he  -     ^ 
read  this  roll  in  the  temple.  (6-10)  and  later  before  the  . 

princes  (11-19).     When  the  report  of  it  reached  the         <Xf 
king's  ears  he  ordered  it  read  in  his  presence  (20-22).    yy        ^ 
But  after  a  few  leaves  had  been  read  he  seized  it  and  (3/ 

threw  it  into  the  fire  (23-26).    At  the  divine  command        Q^ 
the  roll  was  rewritten  with  some  additions  (27-32). 

Jeremiah  and  Zedekiah,  37. 1—38.  28.  Chapter  37 
takes  us  again  to  the  reign  of  Zedekiah  (i,  2).  The 
approach  of  the  Pharaoh's  army  caused  the  temporary 
raise  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  (3-5),  nevertheless 
Jeremiah  warns  the  king  against  trusting  in  the  king 
of  Egypt  (6-10).  Later  the  prophet  is  accused  of  de- 
sertion and  imprisoned  (11-16).  During  a  secret  in- 
terview with  Zedekiah  he  reaffirms  previous  threats; 
he  also  prays  for  a  change  in  prison  quarters,  which  is 
granted  (17-21).  For  announcing  the  destruction  of 
the  city  Jeremiah  is  thrown  into  a  dungeon  (38.  i-63, 


152  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

from  which  he  is  released  at  the  king's  command  (7-13). 
In  another  secret  interview  Zedekiah  is  urged  to  sur- 
render to  the  Chaldeans,  because  only  so  can  he  save 
his  life  (14-23).  Jeremiah  remains  in  the  court  of  the 
guard  until  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (2  4-2  8a). 

Jeremiah  and  Gedaliah,  38.  28 — 41.  18.  When  Jeru- 
salem was  taken  (38.  28b — 39.  10)  Jeremiah  was  spared 
(11-18).  Verses  15-18  contain  a  promise  that  Ebed- 
melech  will  be  saved.  The  prophet  is  given  the  choice.. 
between  remaining  with  the  new  governor,  Gedaliah, 
and  going  with  the  exiles;  and  he  prefers  the  former 
(40.  1-6).  An  era  of  prosperity  dawns  under  Geda- 
liah (7-12),  but  after  a  few  months  he  is  murdered  by 
Ishmael  (40.  13 — 41.  3),  who  then  takes  captive  the 
inhabitants  of  Mizpah  and  carries  them  to  Ammon 
(4-10),  where  they  are  rescued  by  Johanan  (11-18). 

Jeremiah  Taken  to  Egypt  against  his  Will,  Chap- 
ters 42-44.  The  surviving  Jews  appeal  to  Jeremiah  for 
advice  (42.  1-6),  who  assures  them  of  the  divine  pro- 
tection, provided  they  remain  in  the  land  (7-12),  but 
if  they  flee  to  Egypt  disaster  will  overtake  them  (13- 
22).  In  spite  of  this  warning  they  go  to_Egypt  and 
compel  Jeremiah  to  accompany  them  (43.  1-7). 
While  in  Egypt  Jeremiah  announces  the  conquest  of 
that  land  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (8-10).  In  Egypt  the 
.Jews  relapse  into  idolatry,  for  which  the  prophet  re- 
bukes them  (44.  1-14).  The  people  reply  that  when 
they  worshiped  Jehovah  it  was  ill  with  them;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  they  practiced  idolatry  they  had 
plenty,  therefore  they  will  not  hearken  to  him  (15-19). 
Whereupon  Jeremiah  renews  his  warnings  and  in- 
forms the  people  that  few  of  them  will  return  to  Judah 
(20-30). 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  153 

Encouragement  of  Baruch,  Chapter  45.  Chapter 
45  is  a  supplement  to  36.  1-8.  It  is  a  message  to  Baruch, 
whose  courage  was  faihng.  He  is  told  that  it  is  not 
a  time  to  expect  great  things  for  himself ;  he  must  be 
content  if  his  Hfe  is  spared. 

Prophecies  Concerning  Foreign  Nations,  Chapters 
46-51.  Chapters  46-51  contain  prophecies  against 
foreign  nations  (46.  i).  The  first  is  against  Egypt  (2). 
Following  an  ode  over  the  defeat  of  Pharaoh-neco 
at  Carchemish  (3-12),  the  prophet  predicts  the  vic- 
torious  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (13-26). 
This  is  followed  by  words  of  comfort  addressed  to 
Israel  (27,  28;  almost  identical  with  30.  10,  u). 
Philistia  is  warned  that  an  enemy  will  come  from  the 
north,  who  will  wholly  waste  the  land.  The  devasta- 
tion will  affect  also  Tyre  and  Sidon  (chap.  47). 

The  long  prophecy  in  chapter  48  is  directed  against 
Moab,  whose  utter  destruction  is  announced.  A 
similar  fate  is  awaiting  Ammon  (49.  1-6).  Edom  also 
is  doomed  (7-22).  Damascus,  seized  with  trembling, 
,<:u-will  be  taken  and  her  warriors  slain  (23-27).  Kedar 
and  Hazor  will  be  scattered  (28-33),  ^^^  ^  similar  fate 
will  befall  Elam  (34-39). 

The  climax  is  the  oracle  against  Babylon  (50.  i — •  a^-^ 
51.  58).  A  nation  is  approaching  from  the" north,  to 
make  an  end  of  her  power,  that  the  exiles  may  be 
delivered.  Again  and  again  the  prophet  bids  the 
foe  to  begin  the  fray,  while  he  exhorts  the  exiles  to 
escape  from  the  doomed  city,  in  whose  downfall  he 
rejoices. 

This  prophecy  is  followed  by  a  brief  historical  sec- 
tion (51.  59-64),  which  states  that  Jeremiah  sent  to 
Babylon  a  roll  containing  a  curse  upon  the  city,  with 


^v/< 


154      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  command  that  it  be  read  there  and  then  sunk  in  the 
Euphrates. 

Closing  Days  of  Jerusalem;  Kind  Treatment  of 
Jehoiachin,  Chapter  52.  Chapter  52  contains  an  ac- 
count of  the  reign  of  Zedekiah  (1-3),  his  rebelHon 
and  the  subsequent  capture  of  the  city  (4-1 1),  the 
burning  of  the  holy  city  and  the  carrying  away  of  the 
exiles  and  of  the  temple  treasures  (12-30).  It  closes 
with  an  account  of  the  kindly  treatment  accorded  to 
Jehoiachin  by  Evil-merodach  (31-34). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  JEREMIAH 

\     Agreement    of     Jeremiah    with    His    Predecessors. 
Jeremiah  was  the  prophet  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 
His  message  is  in  the  main  one  of  doom;   onlyrare]^ 
does  there  appear  a  ray  of  light.     In  his  conception  of 
the  character  of  Jehovah  he  is  in  perfect  accord  with 
his  predecessors  in  the  prophetic  office.     Jehovah  is 
the  one  God,  righteous  and  just,  pure  and  holy,  merciful 
^  -.>         and  gracious,  slow  to  anger,  and  yet  sure  to  visit  upon 
^  r  <^  evil-doers  their  sins.    However,  it  is  not  in  an  abstract 
syu.  y,^  manner  that  Jeremiah  discusses  the  divine  character, 
but  rather  in  its  bearing  upon  Jehovah's  relation  to 
Judah,  which  is  the  subject  of  all  his  preaching. 

Israel  in  a  Peculiar  Sense  the  People  of  Jehovah. 
Like  Hosea,  Jeremiah  starts  out  with  the  conviction 
that  his  countrymen  are  in  a  peculiar  sense  the  people 
of  Jehovah.  They  had  become  such  by  divine  choice.-^ 
It  was  Jehovah  who  brought  them  out  of  Egypt,  led 
them  through  the  wilderness,  and  established  them  in 
the  promised  land,  where  they  might  live  in  prosperity 
(2.6,7).  He  had  also  looked  after  their  spiritual  needs: 
"I  have  sent  unto  you  all  my  servants  the  prophets. 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  155 

daily  rising  up  early  and  sending  them"  (7.  25).  Like 
Hosea,  Jeremiah  describes  the  intimate  relation  be-  . 
tween  Jehovah  and  Israel  under  the  two  figures  of  ^0<^^ 
marriage  and  filial  relation.  He  calls  the  early  affection 
of  Israel  the  love  of  her  espousals  (2.  2),  and  he  places 
in  the  mouth  of  Jehovah  these  words:  "I  am  a  father 
to  Israel,  and  Ephraim  is  my  firstborn"  (31.  9). 

Israel's  Apostasy.  But  Israel  proved  faithless.  In 
the  beginning  "Israel  was  holiness  unto  Jehovah" 
(2.  3),  but  it  soon  forsook  him  (3.  i),  walked  after 
vanity,  and  became  vain  (2.  5;  compare  also  verses 
7,  8,  12,  13,  21).  The  faithlessness  showed  itself  in  the 
practice  of  idolatry  (3.  i);  in  the  temple  itself  they 
set  up  their  abominations  (7.  30).  Some  who  were 
not  attracted  by  idolatry  became  skeptics  or  practical 
atheists;  they  doubted  the  righteousness  or  even  the 
reality  of  the  divine  government  of  the  world  (5.  12). 
Religious  apostasy  was  accompanied  by  moral  apostasy. 
Crimes  and  vices  of  various  sorts  were  openly  prac- 
ticed; goodness  was  almost  unknown.  "As  a  well 
casteth  forth  its  waters,  so  she  casteth  forth  her  wick- 
edness: violence  and  destruction  is  heard  in  her; 
before  me  continually  is  sickness  and  wounds"  (6.  7; 
compares,  i,  26-28;  6.  13;  9.  2ff. ;  etc.).  ^//s- 

IsraePs  Self-righteousness.     As  in  the  days  of  the  ^       "^ 
earlier  prophets,  the  people,  in  spite  of  their  religious   ^/Op^^ 

and  moral  apostasy,  entertained.. a  feeling  of  perfect / 

security  and  self-righteousness.  Many  believed  that 
in  view  of  their  painstaking  observance  of  the  external 
ceremonial  they  had  a  claim  upon  the  divine  favor, 
and  that  Jehovah  was  bound  to  stand  by  them.  In 
this  attitude  of  mind  they  found  it  easy  to  exaggerate 
Isaiah's  doctrine  of  the  inviolability  of  Zion  and  to 


156      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

put  their  trust  in  the  external  temple  (7.  4).  Nor  is  it 
any  wonder  that  in  this  spirit  they  should  resent  the 
denunciations  of  Jeremiah  and  consider  him  a  fanatical_ 
disturber  of  the  peace  (8.  8,  12;  18.  18).  Their  spirit- 
ual sensibilities  had  become  dulled  and  their  con- 
sciences had  become  seared.  Therefore  they  failed  to 
understand  the  significance  of  the  divinely  sent  chas- 
tisements: "Wherefore  hath  Jehovah  our  God  done 
all  these  things  unto  us?"  (5.  19;   16.  10). 

Jeremiah  severely  condemns  this  self-complacency 
and  blind  trust  in  the  externals  of  religion.  The 
promise  that  the  presence  of  the  temple  will  save  them 
he  calls  "lying  words"  (7.4);  and  he  declares  the  whole 
sacrificial  system  to  be  an  abomination  to  Jehovah 
(6.  20).  "Will  ye  steal,  murder,  and  commit  adultery, 
and  swear  falsely,  and  bum  incense  unto  Baal,  and 
walk  after  other  gods  that  ye  have  not  known,  and 
come  and  stand  before  me  in  this  house,  which  is  called 
by  my  name,  and  say.  We  are  delivered ;  that  ye  may  do 
all  these  abominations  ?  Is  this  house,  which  is  called  by 
my  name,  become  a  den  of  robbers  in  your  eyes  ?  Be- 
hold, I,  even  I,  have  seen  it,  saith  Jehovah"  (7.  9-1 1). 

Threats  of  Judgment.  It  is  the  apparent  hopeless- 
ness of  the  situation  that  is  responsible  for  the  many 
announcements  and  threats  of  judgment.  From  i.  10, 
which  contains  the  commission  of  the  prophet,  to  the 
end  of  the  book  the  somber  note  of  judgment  pre- 
dominates. In  the  prophecies  belonging  to  the  earlier 
period  a  note  of  hope  is  still  discernible.  Judah  may 
yet  repent;  if  so,  the  severest  blow  may  be  averted. 
Therefore  the  prophet  frequently  exhorts  the  people 
to  repent:  "Break  up  your  fallow  ground,  and  sow  not 
among    thorns.      Circumcise    yourselves    to    Jehovah, 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  157 

and  take  away  the  foreskins  of  your  heart,  ye  men 
of  Judah  and  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem ;  lest  my  wrath 
go  forth  like  fire,  and  birni  so  that  none  can  quench 
it,  because  of  the  evil  of  your  doings"  (4.  3,  4;  com- 
pare 6.  8;  7.  3;  etc.).  But  when  the  years  passed 
without  any  improvement  in  the  people,  and  especially 
after  the  accession  of  Jehoiakim,  Jeremiah  came  to 
abandon  the  expectation  of  any  kind  of  general  re- 
sponse on  the  part  of  the  obdurate  nation.  "But  they 
say,  It  is  in  vain;  for  we  will  walk  after  our  own  de- 
vices, and  we  will  do  every  one  after  the  stubbornness 
of  his  evil  heart"  (18,  12).  He  became  convinced  that 
Jehovah's  patience  was  exhausted  and  that  the  time 
of  mercy  was  past.  He  must  no  longer  pray  for  mercy; 
justice  must  have  her  way.  "Therefore  pray  not 
thou  for  this  people,  neither  lift  up  cry  nor  prayer  for 
them,  neither  make  intercession  to  me;  for  I  will  not 
hear  thee"  (7.  16;  14.  12).  Yea,  though  Moses  and 
Samuel  should  intercede,  they  could  not  change  Jeho- 
vah's purpose  to  cast  the  people  out  of  his  sight  (15.  i). 
In  the  immediate  future  the  prophet  could  see  nothing 
but  death  and  destruction:  "Such  as  are  for  death 
(shall  go  forth)  to  death;  and  such  as  are  for  the 
sword,  to  the  sword;  and  such  as  are  for  the  famine,  to 
the  famine;  and  such  as  are  for  captivity,  to  captivity." 
Promises  of  a  Future  Restoration.  From  the  sins  of 
the  present  and  the  judgments  which  he  expects  to  fall 
in  the  near  future  Jeremiah  frequently  turns  to  the  more 
remote  future.  He  saw  beyond  the  night  of  calamity  and 
distress  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day.  The  eternal  pur- 
pose of  divine  grace  must  yet  be  realized.  The  nation 
may  perish,  ^ut  the  kingdom  of  God  must  endure. 
Promises  of  restoration  are  scattered  throughout  the 


^rV 


158  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

entire  book,  but  they  are  especially  numerous  in 
chapters  30-33,  which  have  been  called  a  "Book  of 
Consolation."  The  following  are  the  most  important 
features  of  the  future  glory  which  are  emphasized  by 
Jeremiah : 

1.  The  Preservation  of  a  Remnant.  Like  the 
other  prophets,  Jeremiah  believes  that  the  divine 
judgments  have  a  disciplinary  purpose.  The  whole 
nation  must  suffer  in  exile,  but  among  the  exiles  are 
some  who  have  remained  and  will  remain  faithful  to 
Jehovah.  These  faithful  ones,  who  constitute  the  true 
Israel,  will  survive  the  calamity,  and  will  be  saved 
as  the  nucleus  of  the  new  kingdom  of  God  (4.  27 ;  5.10, 
18;  29.  11;  30.  11;  46.  28). 

2.  The  Restoration  from  Exile.  These  faithful 
servants  of  Jehovah,  saved  from  destruction,  will  in  due 
time  be  restored  to  their  old  home.  The  period  of 
exile  will  be  seventy  years  (25.  11).  At  the  end  of/ 
this  period  the  power  of  Babylon  will  be  broken  (25, 
12-14);  and  the  hour  of  Babylon's  downfall  will  be 
the  .time  of  the  exiles'  restoration  (30.  7-1 1),  The 
return  from  exile  will  be  so  glorious  that  it  will  cast  the 
wonderful  deliverance  from  Egypt  into  the  shade 
(16.  14,  15).  North  and  south  will  share  the  glories 
of  the  restoration  (3.  12,  21,  22);  for  the  divine  father- 
heart  yearns  with  compassion  for  the  whole  people 
(chapter  31).  Since  only  the  faithful  will  be  brought 
back,  the  land  of  Judah  and  the  cities  thereof  may 
again  be  called  the  "habitation  of  righteousness" 
and  the  "mountain  of  holiness"  (31.  23). 

3.  The  New  Jerusalem.  The  present  Jerusalem  is 
corrupt  and,  therefore,  must  be  destroyed;  but  as 
out  of  the  ashes  of  the  old  nation  a  new  nation  will 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  159 

emerge,  so,  the  prophet  is  convinced,  out  of  the  ruins 
of  the  old  city  a  new  city  will  arise,  to  serve  as  the 
dwelling  place  of  Jehovah  and  a  suitable  religious 
center  for  the  returned  exiles.  The  new  Jerusalem 
will  be  free  from  the  corruptions  of  the  present  city: 
"And  this  is  the  name  whereby  she  shall  be  called: 
Jehovah  our  righteousness"  (33.  16). 

4.  The  Ideal   King.     In  the  new  city  and  over  the  yS 
redeemed  remnant  an  ideal  king  will  rule.    The  throne       "-^  c^ 
of  David  had  been  disgraced  by  a  succession  of  worth- 
less kings,  who  had  hurried  Judah  to  its  ruin.     In  the 

era  of  restoration  all  this  will  be  changed:  "And  I 
will  set  up  shepherds  over  them,  who  shall  feed  them; 
and  they  shall  fear  no  more,  nor  be  dismayed"  (23.  4). 
The  chief  ruler  will  be  a  descendant  of  David:  "I  will 
raise  unto  David  a  righteous  Branch,  and  he  shall 
reign  as  king  and  deal  wisely,  and  shall  execute  justice 
and  righteousness  in  the  land.  In  his  days  Judah  shall 
be  saved,  and  Israel  shall  dwell  safely;  and  this  is  his 
name  whereby  he  shall  be  called:  Jehovah  our  right- 
eousness" (23.  5,  6).  In  30.  9  the  ideal  ruler  is  called 
David,  which  means,  that  he  will  be  a  second  David, 
a  man  after  God's  own  heart  and  a  true  representative 
of  Jehovah.     He  is  also  represented  as  having„iree 

access  to  God  (30.  21).        P^^y^J-  Mo^r/S ^     Ji^oS 

5.  The  New  Covenant.  An  important  element  in 
the  teaching  of  Jeremiah  is  the  establishment  of  a  new 
covenant,  a  covenant  of  pardon  and^race.  The  cove- 
nant made  at  Mount  Sinai  had  failed  to  accomplish 
its  purpose.  Israel  had  become  apostate;  "they 
obeyed  not,  nor  inclined  their  ear,  but  walked  every  one 
in  the  stubbornness  of  their  evil  heart"  (11.  8;  31.  32). 
This  was  due  to  a  serious  defect  inherent  in  the  old 


i6o      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

covenant.     "'    "^''is  powerless  to  secure  the  obedience 
it  enjoint  .vas  burdensome  as  a  law  of  positive 

precepts  nd  ordinances;  in  relation  to  the  removal 
of  sin  it  was  hopelessly  ineffective."  An  effective 
covenant  is  not  imposed  from  without:  it  is  the  out- 
growth of  mutual  affection,  and  such  affection  can 
exist  only  where  there  is  identity  of  ideals  and  purpose. 
The  shortcomings  of  the  old  covenant  will  be  removed 
in  the  new.  "I  will  put  my  law  in  their  inward  parts, 
and  in  their  heart  will  I  write  it;  and  I  will  be  their 
God,  and  they  shall  be  my  people.  And  they  shall 
teach  no  more  every  man  his  neighbor,  and  every  man 
his  brother,  saying.  Know  Jehovah;  for  they  shall  all 
know  me,  from  the  least  of  them  unto  the  greatest  of 
them,  saith  Jehovah:  for  I  will  forgive  their  iniquity, 
and  their  sin  will  I  remember  no  more"  (31.  ;^^,  34). 
And  again,  "I  will  make  an  everlasting  covenant  with 
them,  that  I  will  not  turn  away  from  following  them, 
to  do  them  good;  and  I  will  put  my  fear  in  their 
hearts,  that  they  may  not  depart  from  me"  (32.  40). 
The  prophet,  then,  looks  for  a  new  covenant  of  grace, 
which  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  divine  love,  and  is  pre- 
ceded by  an  act  of  pardon  and  cleansing:  "I  will 
cleanse  them  from  all  their  iniquity,  whereby  they 
have  sinned  against  me;  and  I  will  pardon  all  their 
iniquities,  whereby  they  have  sinned  against  me,  and 
whereby  they  have  transgressed  against  me"  (33.  8). 
The  new  covenant  will  be  an  everlasting  covenant, 
uniting  Jehovah  and  his  people  forever,.  Such  it  can 
be  because  the  immediate  and  experimental  knowledge 
of  God,  which  is  to  be  enjoyed  by  all,  will  prove 
an  ever-active  motive  for  goodness  and  righteousness. 
6.  Spirituality    of     Religion.       Jeremiah's  teaching 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH  i6i 

concerning  the  nature  and  character  i^f  ^t^' '  ^w  cove- 
nant gives  evidence  of  his  deeply  spir,y  ^^  aception 
of  religion,  which  appears  also  in  other  coi  lections. 
In  former  days  the  national  aspect  of  religion  was 
emphasized;  and  this  naturally  gave  a  large  place  to 
forms  and  institutions  which  might  be  national  in 
their  use  and  benefits.  Jeremiah  saw  that  the  national 
life  of  Judah  was  rapidly  nearing  its  close,  and  with 
it  would  disappear  the  holy  city,  the  temple,  and  other 
institutions  that  were  closely  bound  up  with  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  past.  Religion,  to  prepare  it  for 
this  crisis,  must  be  denationalized,  it  must  be^  in- 
dividualized and  spiritualized.  Important  as  are  his 
other  contributions  to  the  body  of  religious  truth, 
his  teaching  on  this  subject  is  of  the  greatest  perma- 
nent value.  Here  he  passes  beyond  his  predecessors  in_ 
the  direction  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus.  With  Jeremiah 
religion  is  an  immediate,  personal  relationship  between 
Jehovah  and  the  individual  soul,  and  heart  obedience 
and  devotion  of  the  individual  to  his  God.  When  all 
individuals  enjoy  this  personal  fellowship,  then  a 
similar  relationship  becomes  possible  between  Jehovah 
and  the  redeemed  remnant  as  a  whole.  "I  will  give 
them  a  heart  to  know  me,  that  I  am  Jehovah:  and 
they  shall  be  my  people  and  I  w^ill  be  their  God ;  and  they 
shall  return  unto  me  with  their  whole  heart"  (24.  7). 
7.  Personal  Responsibility.  The  individualization 
of  religion  implies  the  doctrine  of  personal  responsi- 
bility. With  the  sense  of  individuality  lost,  persons 
might  think  that  they  were  punished  for  the  sins  of 
others,  sins  committed  either  by  some  of  their  con- 
temporaries or  by  their  ancestors.  Jeremiah  knew 
that  there  were  those  who  said,   "The  fathers  have 


i62      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the  children's  teeth  are  set  on 
edge"  (31.  29).  Conscious  personal  fellowship  with 
God  involves  a  deeper  sense  of  individual  responsi- 
bility. Men  will  begin  to  realize  that  every  one  is  re- 
sponsible for  his  own  conduct.  "Every  one  shall  die 
for  his  own  iniquity:  every  man  that  eateth  sour  grapes, 
his  teeth  shall  be  set  on  edge"  (31.  30). 

8.  Salvation  of  the  Nations.  It  follows  naturally 
from  such  teaching  that  the  salvation  of  the  nations  out- 
side of  Israel  does  not  depend  upon  membership  in 
the  nation  Israel,  but  upon  their  owti  relation  to  the 
true  God.  When,  as  a  result  of  the  wonderful  mani- 
festations of  Jehovah,  they  come  to  recognize  him  as 
the  true  God,  then  they  too  will  find  their  place  among 
the  redeemed.  "Unto  thee  shall  the  nations  come  from 
the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  shall  say.  Our  fathers  have 

^         inherited  naught  but  lies,  even  vanity  and  things  where- 
in  there  is  no  profit"  (16.  19;  compare  3.  17;  4.  2133.9). 

9.  Disappearance  of  External  Symbols.  When  the 
immediate  presence  of  Jehovah  is  realized  the  peo- 

.  pie  may  discard  the  emblems  peculiar  to  the  old  re- 

jPj^C^  ligion.    This  thought  is  expressed  most  clearly  in  the 
^    announcement  that  the  need  of  the  ark  will  no  longer 

be  felt:  "When  ye  are  multiplied  and  increased  in  the 

land,  in  those  days,  saith  Jehovah,  they  shall  say  no 
more.  The  ark  of  the  covenant  of  Jehovah;  neither 
shall  it  come  to  mind ;  neither  shall  they  remember  it ; 
neither  shall  they  miss  it;  neither  shall  it  be  made 
any  more"  (3.  16).  The  ark  was  the  symbol  of  the 
presence  of  Jehovah;  but  when  Jehovah  himself  is  in 
the  midst  of  the  people,  and  his  presence  .is  realized 
in  the  lives  and  experiences  of  his  worshipers,  no  one 
will  care  for  the  symbols  of  his  presence. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH 

I.    ZEPHANIAH 
THE  PERSONAL  LIFE  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZEPHANIAH 

Occasion  and  Date  of  the  Prophecy.  The  earliest 
of  Jeremiah's  contemporaries  was  Zephaniah.  The 
occasion  of  his  prophesying  seems  to  have  been  the 
appearance  of  the  Scythians,  to  which  reference  is 
made  on  p.  129.  At  the  time  his  message  was  de- 
hvered  their  advance  against  Egypt  was  still  in  the 
future,  though  imminent.  The  prophet  considered  the 
Scythians  the  executioners  of  the  divine  judgment 
upon  his  sinful  countrymen  and  upon  the  surrounding 
nations,  and  he  saw  in  the  coming  of  the  mysterious 
hosts  the  harbinger  of  the  day  of  Jehovah.  If  this  was 
the  occasion,  the  prophet's  urgent  calls  to  repentance 
and  threats  of  judgment  may  be  assigned,  with  con- 
siderable assurance,  to  the  years  between  630  and 
625  B,  C,  perhaps  626,  the  year  in  which  Jeremiah 
began  his  prophetic  ministry. 

The  Ancestry  of  Zephaniah.  Practioally  nothing 
is  known  of  the  prophet's  personal  history.  In  i.  i  his 
ancestry  is  traced  back  four  generations.  Since  it  is 
not  customary  in  the  Old  Testament  to  trace  a  man's 
ancestry  back  so  far,  it  has  been  inferred  from  this 
exception  to  the  general  rule  that  the  last  mentioned 
ancestor  of  Zephaniah  was  a  man  of  prominence — in- 
deed, no  other  than  King  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  the  con- 
temporary of  Isaiah  and  Micah.    If  the  prophet  was 

163 


i64      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  royal  blood  his  condemnation  of  the  royal  princes 
(i.  8),  with  whose  conduct  he  was  evidently  familiar 
(i.  8ff),  becomes  of  great  interest.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner Isaiah,  who  is  thought  to  have  been  of  royal  de- 
scent, condemned  the  shortcomings  and  vices  of  the 
rulers  and  the  court.  That  Zephaniah  lived  in  Jeru- 
salem is  made  probable  by  his  reference  to  the  holy  city 
as  ''this  place"  (i.  4),  and  by  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  topography  of  the  city  (i.  10,  11). 

Length  of  Zephaniah's  Activity.  For  how  long  he 
continued  his  ministry  we  do  not  know;  it  is  not  im- 
probable, however,  that,  as  was  the  case  with  Amos, 
his  public  activity  was  short,  and  that,  after  delivering 
his  message  of  judgment  in  connection  with  a  great 
political  crisis,  he  retired  to  private  life,  though  his 
interest  in  religious  reforms  may  have  continued 
(2  Kings  23.  2). 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  ZEPHANIAH 

The  Book  of  Zephaniah  falls  naturally  into  two  parts 
of  unequal  length.  The  first  part  (i.  2 — 3.  7)  contains 
almost  exclusively  denunciations  and  threats;  the 
second  (3.  8-20),  a  promise  of  salvation  and  glorification. 

The  Judgment  upon  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  Chapter 
I.  The  prophecy  opens  with  an  announcement  of  a 
world  judgment  (i,  2,  3),  which  will  be  particularly 
severe  upon  Judah  and  Jerusalem  (4),  because  they 
"have  not  sought  Jehovah  nor  inquired  after  him"; 
instead  they  have  practiced  idolatrous  rites  of  various 
kinds  (4-6).  The  ungodly  nobles  will  suffer  most, 
because  they  are  arrogant  and  practice  oppression, 
violence,  and  deceit  (8,  9).  The  judgment  is  immi- 
nent (7).  When  it  comes,  cries  of  agony  and  despair 
will  be  heard  everywhere  (10,  11).    No  one  will  escape; 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  165 

even  the  indifferent  skeptics  will  be  aroused  by  the 
terrible  character  of  the  judgment  (12,  13).  In  the 
succeeding  verses  the  imminence  and  terribleness  ot 
the  day  of  Jehovah  is  enlarged  upon.  It  "is  near  and 
hasteth  greatly"  (14),  it  is  a  day  of  darkness  without 
a  ray  of  light  (15),  and  a  day  of  battle  (16).  The  calam- 
ity will  throw  the  inhabitants  into  helpless  confusion, 
so  that  they  will  stagger  like  blind  men  and  fall  an 
easy  prey  to  the  enemy  (17),  who  will  show  them  no 
mercy.  All  this  will  come  to  pass  because  Jehovah  has 
determined  to  "make  an  end,  yea,  a  terrible  end,  of 
all  them  that  dwell  in  the  land"  (18). 

Exhortation  to  Repentance,  2.  1-3.  The  message 
of  judgment  is  followed  by  an  exhortation  to  repent- 
ance (2.  1-3).  Aroused  by  the  indifference  of  the 
listeners,  the  prophet  pleads  with  them  to  give  some 
evidence  of  repentance  (i),  else  they  will  be  swept 
away  like  chaff  before  the  wind  (2).  One  way  of 
escape  is  offered  to  the  meek,  namely,  to  "seek 
Jehovah."  If  they  do  this  they  may  be  "hid  in  the 
day  of  Jehovah"  (3). 

Judgment  upon  Foreign  Nations,  2.  4-15.  The  next 
section  (2.  4-15)  contains  threats  of  judgment  upon 
five  nations.  Philistia  will  be  destroyed  so  completely 
that  no  inhabitant  will  be  left  (4-7).  On  account  of 
their  pride  and  arrogance  Moab  and  Ammon  will  be- 
come like  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (8-10).  The  terrible 
manifestation  of  Jehovah's  power  will  reveal  the 
nothingness  of  the  deities  worshiped  by  other  nations, 
and  all  men  will  render  homage  to  the  God  of  Israel 
(11).  Ethiopia  in  the  south  will  feel  the  divine  wrath 
(12);  but  the  severest  blow  will  fall  upon  Assyria  and 
its  capital  Nineveh  (13-15). 


i66      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

The  Judgment  and  its  Effects,  3.  1-13.    In  3.  i  the 

prophet  turns  once  more  to  Jerusalem,  "the  rebellious 
and  unclean,  the  city  of  oppression."  Her  princes  are 
thieves,  her  prophets  "bold  jugglers  instead  of  God's 
witnesses,"  her  priests  profane  that  which  is  holy  (1-4). 
Jehovah  has  done  all  he  could  to  win  the  city  back  to 
purity,  but  in  vain ;  her  inhabitants  corrupted  all  their 
doings  (5-7).  Since  all  warnings  have  failed  the 
judgment,  which  will  involve  Judah  with  the  other 
nations,  is  inevitable  (8).  A  remnant  will  escape, 
and  it  is  exhorted  to  remain  loyal  amid  the  imminent 
convulsions,  because  the  future  has  brighter  things 
in  store.  The  judgment  will  result  in  the  conversion  of 
a  choice  portion  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  (9,  10). 
This  company,  with  the  redeemed  and  purified  remnant 
of  Judah,  will  find  rest  and  peace  in  Jehovah  (11-13). 
The  Joy  of  the  Redeemed  Daughter  of  Zion,  3. 
14-20.  The  closing  section,  which  is  by  many  denied 
to  Zephaniah,  pictures  the  joy  of  the  redeemed  daugh- 
ter of  Zion.  In  14-17  she  is  urged  to  rejoice  mightily, 
because  Jehovah  has  redeemed  her  and  now  rules  in 
the  midst  of  her.  In  18-20  Jehovah  promises  to  the 
restored  community  deliverance  from  all  foes,  the  re- 
moval of  all  reproach,  the  restoration  of  the  dispersed, 
and  the  exaltation  of  the  faithful  among  the  nations 
of  the  earth. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ZEPHANIAH 

Zephaniah  and  the  Earlier  Prophets.  The  theology 
of  Zephaniah  closely  resembles  that  of  the  earlier 
prophetic  books.  Jehovah  is  the  God  of  the  universe, 
a  God  of  righteousness  and  holiness,  who  expects  of  his 
worshipers  a  life  in  accord  with  his  will.  Israelis  his 
chosen  people,  but  on  account  of  its  rebellion  it  must 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  167 

suffer  severe  punishment.  Wholesale  conversion  seems 
out  of  the  question,  but  a  remnant  may  be  "hid  in  the 
day  of  Jehovah's  anger,"  and  this  remnant  will  be 
exalted  among  the  nations.  In  his  emphasis  of  these 
and  similar  truths  Zephaniah  follows  in  the  footsteps 
of  his  predecessors,  especially  in  those  of  Isaiah.  He 
adds  little,  but  attempts  with  much  spiritual  and  moral 
fervor  to  impress  upon  his  contemporaries  the  funda- 
mental truths  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah. 

The  Day  of  Jehovah.  There  are,  however,  a  few 
points  in  the  teaching  of  the  Book  of  Zephaniah  which 
deserve  special  mention.  In  the  first  place,  the  em- 
phasis upon  the  day  of  Jehovah.  Earlier  prophets  had 
spoken  of  it;  Amos  (5.  18-20)  had  described  it  in  lan- 
guage similar  to  that  employed  by  Zephaniah ;  but  the 
latter  surpasses  all  his  predecessors  in  the  emphasis  he 
places  upon  this  terrible  manifestation  of  Jehovah. 
His  entire  teaching  centers  around  this  day,  and  in  the 
Book  of  Zephaniah  we  find  the  germs  of  the  apocalyptic 
visions  which  became  so  common  in  later  prophecies 
of  an  eschatological  character.  Concerning  this  day  he 
says  (i)  that  it  is  a  day  of  terror  (i.  15);  (2)  it  is  im- 
minent (i.  14);  (3)  it  comes  as  a  judgment  for  sin 
(i.  17);  (4)  it  falls  upon  all  creation,  man  and  beast, 
Hebrew  and  foreigner  (i.  2,  3;  2.  4-15;  3.  8);  (5)  it 
is  accompanied  by  great  convulsions  in  nature  (i.  15); 
(6)  a  remnant  consisting  of  redeemed  Hebrews  and 
foreigners  will  escape  from  its  terrors  (2.3;  3.  9-13). 

Zephaniah's  Universalism.  The  vision  of  the  book 
is  world-wide.  The  terrors  of  the  day  of  Jehovah  will 
fall  upon  all,  and  in  the  same  manner,  from  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth  converts  will  be  won  to  Jehovah, 
who  will  bring  offerings  to  him  (3.  9,  10).    In  2.  11, 


i68      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

"Men  shall  worship  him,  every  one  from  his  place," 
Zephaniah  takes  a  step  in  advance  of  the  expectation 
expressed  in  Mic.  4.  i;  Isa.  2.  2,  "all  nations  shall  flow 
unto  it,"  that  is,  Jerusalem.  He  moves  in  the  direction 
of  the  utterance  of  Jesus,  "The  hour  cometh,  when 
neither  in  this  mountain,  nor  in  Jerusalem,  shall  ye 
worship  the  Father' '  (John  4.21).  Though  the  prophet 
draws  a  sublime  picture  of  the  glories  of  the  Messianic 
age  (3.  14-20),  he  says  fiot  a  word  concerning  the  per- 
son of  the  Messianic  king.  Whatever  is  accomplished 
is  accomplished  by  Jehovah  himself. 

II.     NAHUM 

THE  PERSONAL  HISTORY  OF  NAHUM 

Date  of  Nahum.  Nahum  is  the  prophet  of  Nine- 
veh's doom.  The  whole  book  centers  around  the  fall 
and  destruction  of  that  city.  Since  the  capture  of  the 
city  is  represented  as  still  in  the  future,  it  seems  evident 
that  the  prophecies  were  delivered  some  time  before 
607-606,  the  year  in  which  the  city  was  destroyed. 
Thus  the  latest  possible  date  of  Nahum's  activity  is 
fixed.  The  earliest  possible  date  also  is  indicated  by 
internal  evidence.  In  3.  8ff.  the  prophet  speaks  of  the 
capture  and  destruction  of  No-Amon,  the  Egyptian 
Thebes,  as  an  accomplished  fact.  The  expedition  of 
Ashurbanapal,  king  of  Assyria,  against  Egypt,  which 
resulted  in  the  fall  of  Thebes,  occurred  about  663  B.  C. 
Hence  the  activity  of  Nahum  must  be  placed  some- 
where between  663  and  607. 

As  to  the  exact  period  between  the  two  dates  there 
is  disagreement  among  scholars.  One  thing  is  made 
quite  clear  by  the  prophecy  itself,  namely,  that  at  the 
time  the  words  were  spoken  or  written  Nineveh  was 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  169 

passing  through  some  grave  crisis.  Now  we  know  that 
during  the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century  B.  C. 
Assyria  was  threatened  three  times:  (i)  The  revolt 
of  Shamashshumukin  of  Babylon  against  his  brother, 
the  king  of  Assyria,  650-648  B.  C.  (2)  The  invasion 
of  Assyria  and  threatened  attack  upon  Nineveh  by 
some  unknown  foe,  perhaps  the  Scythians,  about  625 
B.  C,  (3)  The  final  attack,  which  resulted  in  the  fall 
and  destruction  of  Nineveh  in  607-606  B.  C. 

The  first  crisis  does  not  offer  a  suitable  occasion  for 
Nahum's  prophecy,  because  at  that  time  the  city 
of  Nineveh  was  not  in  any  danger.  Little  is  known 
concerning  the  second  crisis,  and  it  is  not  possible  either 
to  prove  or  to  disprove  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  book. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  years  immediately  preceding 
the  downfall  of  Nineveh  offer  a  most  suitable  occa- 
sion. The  struggle  continued  for  about  two  years. 
The  united  forces  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Scythians  met 
determined  resistance;  at  last  a  breach  was  made  in  the 
northeast  comer  of  the  wall,  the  city  was  taken,  pillaged, 
and  burned.  Judah  had  suffered  much  from  the  proud 
Assyrian,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how, 
with  the  doom  of  the  cruel  oppressor  imminent,  a 
prophet-patriot  might  •  burst  into  shouts  of  exulta- 
tion and  triumph  over  the  distress  of  the  cruel  foe. 
"If,"  says  A.  B.  Davidson,  "the  distress  of  Nineveh 
referred  to  were  the  final  one,  the  descriptions  of  the 
prophecy  would  acquire  a  reality  and  naturalness 
which  they  otherwise  want,  and  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  Hebrew  prophecy  would  be  more  truly  con- 
served." There  seems  to  be  good  reason,  therefore,  for 
assigning  Nahum's  activity  to  a  date  between  610  and 
607  B.  a 


t7o      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

The  Home  of  Nahum.  Of  the  personal  life  of  Nahum 
we  know  practically  nothing.  In  i.  i  he  is  called 
"the  Elkoshite,"  that  is,  an  inhabitant  of  Elkosh. 
Unfortunately,  the  location  of  this  place  is  not  known. 
One  tradition,  which  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the 
sixteenth  century  A.  D.,  identifies  the  home  of  Nahum 
with  a  modem  village  Elkush,  or  Alkosh,  not  far  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  two  days'  journey  north  of 
the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh.  A  second  tradition,  which 
is  at  least  as  old  as  the  days  of  Jerome,  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  century,  locates  Elkosh  in  Galilee,  at  a 
place  identified  by  many  with  the  modem  El-Kauze, 
near  Ramieh.  Others  identify  the  home  of  the  prophet 
with  the  city  of  Capernaum,  whose  name  means.  Village 
of  Nahum.  A  fourth  tradition,  which  is  first  found 
in  a  collection  of  traditions  entitled  "Lives  of  the 
Prophets,"  says,  "Nahum  was  from  Elkosh,  beyond  Bet 
Gabre,  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon."  A  place  in  the  south 
is  more  in  harmony  with  the  interest  the  prophet  takes 
in  the  southern  kingdom,  so  that  the  last-mentioned 
tradition  seems  to  have  much  in  its  favor,  but  absolute 
certainty  is  not  attainable. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  NAHUM 

The  Book  of  Nahum  has  been  called  "a  Pindaric 
ode  of  triumph  over  the  oppressor's  fall."  This  char- 
acterization is  true  especially  of  chapters  2  and  3, 
which  describe,  in  forceful  and  picturesque  language, 
the  siege,  capture,  and  destruction  of  the  Assyrian 
city  of  Nineveh.  Chapter  i  may  be  brought  into  close 
connection  with  the  other  two  by  interpreting  it  as 
Jehovah's  decree  of  Nineveh's  doom. 

Decree  of  Nineveh's  Doom,  Chapter  i.  The  first 
section   of  the   book   (i.   2-15,  to  which  some  add 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  171 

2.  2)  contains  the  decree  of  Nineveh's  doom.  It  opens 
with  a  sublime  description  of  two  aspects  of  the  divine 
character:  Jehovah  is  a  God  of  vengeance  and  of 
mercy  (2,3).  At  times  he  may  seem  slack  in  punishing 
iniquity,  but  retribution  will  surely  overtake  the  sinner; 
and  when  Jehovah  does  appear  in  judgment  no  one  can 
stand  before  him,  even  heaven  and  earth  tremble 
(4-6).  In  verse  7  the  prophet  turns  to  his  real  theme, 
and  shows  what  bearing  the  two  aspects  of  the  divine 
character  have  upon  the  future  history  of  Judah  and 
Nineveh.  Jehovah  will  be  faithful  toward  those  who 
rely  upon  him  (7),  but  woe  upon  his  enemies  (8)1 
The  disappointments  of  Judah  have  been  many,  and 
the  prophet  feels  that  the  simple  statements  in  7,  8 
are  hardly  sufficient  to  drive  away  the  gloom  of  de- 
spair. He  therefore  turns  to  the  people  with  the  ques- 
tion, Do  you  think  that  Jehovah  cannot  or  will  not 
carry  out  his  threat  against  your  present  enemy? 
This  is  a  grievous  error,  for  he  will  surely  bring  utter 
destruction  upon  him  (9,  10).  In  verse  11  he  turns  to 
Nineveh,  to  make  clear  to  her  why  her  doom  is  decreed : 
she  has  "devised  evil  against  Jehovah."  Once  more 
glorious  deliverance  is  promised  to  Judah  (12,  13), 
which  is  followed  by  a  reiteration  of  the  threat  against 
Assyria  (14).  The  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  will 
mean  the  exaltation  of  Judah.  Already  the  prophet 
sees  the  messengers  speeding  over  the  mountains  to 
tell  the  glad  news  to  the  hitherto  oppressed  people.  He 
bids  Judah  to  proclaim  joyous  feasts  and  pay  to 
Jehovah  the  vows  made  in  adversity  (15),  [for  Jehovah 
is  about  to  restore  the  excellency  of  Jacob  (2.  2)]. 

Description    of    Niiieveh*s    Downfall,    Chapter     2. 
From  the  declaration  that  the  doom  of  Nineveh  is  de- 


172      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

creed  the  prophet  passes  to  a  description  of  the  carrying 
out  of  the  decree  (2.  1-13).  The  army  appointed  to 
execute  the  judgment  is  already  approaching,  and  the 
city  must  prepare  for  defense  (i) — for  Jehovah  is  about 
to  restore  the  excellency  of  Jacob  (2).  In  imagination 
the  prophet  beholds  the  terrible  onslaught,  the  glitter- 
ing weapons,  the  raging  chariots  (3,  4).  Desperate 
efforts  are  made  to  save  the  city,  but  in  vain;  it  falls 
(5,  6),  the  queen  and  her  attendants  are  captured  (7), 
the  inhabitants  flee  (8),  the  city  is  sacked  and  left  a 
desolation  (9,  10).  The  prophet,  gazing  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  city,  cries  out  exultantly,  "Where  is  the 
den  of  the  lions,  and  the  feeding  place  of  the  young 
lions,  where  the  lion  and  the  lioness  walked,  the  lion's 
whelp,  and  none  made  them  afraid?"  Jehovah  has 
made  an  utter  end  thereof  (11-13). 

The  Imminence  of  Nineveh's  Destruction,  Chapter  3. 
In  3.  I  the  prophet  turns  once  more  to  Nineveh  and 
pronounces  a  woe  upon  the  bloody  city  (i).  Already 
the  noise  of  the  onslaught  may  be  heard  and  the  glitter 
of  the  arms  may  be  seen  (2,  3).  The  judgment  is  well 
deserved  (4).  The  part  of  the  harlot  she  has  acted, 
the  fate  of  the  harlot  she  must  endure,  and  no  one  will 
bemoan  her  (5-7).  Natural  strength  and  resources 
will  avail  no  more  in  her  case  than  in  the  case  of  the 
Egyptian  No-amon  (8-1 1).  The  enemy  advances,  the 
fortresses  scattered  throughout  the  land  fall,  while 
the  Assyrian  soldiers  become  feeble  and  cowardly 
(12,  13).  A  siege  is  imminent,  preparations  for  it  must 
be  made,  but  all  resistance  will  prove  in  vain ;  the  city 
and  the  inhabitants  will  be  utterly  cut  off  (14-18); 
and  the  whole  earth  will  rejoice  because  her  power  is 
departed  from  her  ( 1 9) . 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  173 

THE  TEACHING  OF  NAHUM 

The  Character  of  Jehovah.  The  utterances  of  Na- 
hum  center  around  a  single  theme,  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh.  As  a  result  they  contain  little  direct  re- 
ligious teaching;  and  what  there  is  of  it  is  con- 
fined very  largely  to  the  opening  verses  of  chapter  i. 
These  verses  emphasize  the  twofold  manifestation  of 
the  divine  holiness,  the  divine  vengeance,  and  the  divine 
mercy  (i.  2,  3).  The  manifestation  of  the  one  results 
in  the  destruction  of  the  wicked  (i.  2),  the  other  in  the 
salvation  of  the  oppressed  (i.  15;  2.  2).  Faith  in 
Jehovah  will  secure  the  divine  favor  and  protection 

(I.  7). 

Silence  Concerning  Judah*s  Sin.  In  one  respect 
Nahum  differs  widely  from  his  predecessors,  namely,  in 
his  silence  concerning  the  sin  and  guilt  of  Judah.  The 
other  prophets  point  to  the  present  or  impending  dis- 
tress and  affliction  as  punishment  for  sin,  and  they 
insist  that  salvation  can  come  only  if  the  people  repent 
and  turn  to  Jehovah.  "For  this  Nahum  has  no  thought. 
His  heart,  for  all  its  bigness,  holds  room  only  for  the 
bitter  memories,  the  baffled  hopes,  the  unappeased 
hatreds  of  a  hundred  years."  This  silence  concerning 
the  sins  of  his  own  nation  is  not  due  to  a  lack  of  high 
ethical  ideals  or  to  ignorance  of  the  people's  con- 
dition, but  rather  to  the  narrowness  of  the  prophet's 
purpose  in  delivering  the  message.  His  purpose  was 
to  point  out  the  hand  of  God  in  the  impending  fall  of 
Nineveh  and  the  significance  of  the  catastrophe  for  the 
oppressed  Jews,  To  do  this  it  was  not  necessary  to 
dwell  upon  the  shortcomings  of  his  people. 

Nahum's  Glee  over  the  Ruin  of  Nineveh.  The  fierce- 
ness of  Nahum,  and  his  glee  at  the  thought  of  Nine- 


174      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

veh's  ruin,  may  not  be  in  accord  with  the  injunction, 
"Love  thine  enemy";  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  not  personal  hatred  that  prompts  the  prophet ; 
he  is  stirred  by  a  righteous  indignation  over  the  out- 
rages committed  by  Assyria.  He  considers  the  sin  and 
overthrow  of  Nineveh  not  merely  in  their  bearing  upon 
the  fortunes  of  Judah,  but  in  their  relation  to  the  moral 
government  of  the  whole  world;  hence  his  voice  gives 
utterance  to  the  outraged  conscience  of  humanity. 

Universality  of  Jehovah's  Rule.  While  Nahum's  mes- 
sage, in  its  direct  teaching,  appears  to  be  less  spiritual 
and  ethical  than  that  of  his  predecessors,  it  sets  in 
a  clear  light  Jehovah's  sway  over  the  whole  universe, 
and  emphasizes  the  duty  of  nations  as  well  as  of  in- 
dividuals to  own  his  sway  and  obey  his  will.  This 
attitude  alone  will  assure  permanent  peace  and  pros- 
perity ;  on  the  other  hand,  disobedience  to  his  purpose 
and  disregard  of  his  rule  will  surely  bring  calamity 
and  distress.  The  emphasis  of  these  ethical  principles 
gives  to  the  message  of  Nahum  a  unique  significance 
for  the  present  day  and  generation.  "Assyria  in  his 
hands,"  says  Kennedy,  "becomes  an  object  lesson  to 
the  empires  of  the  modem  world,  teaching,  as  an 
eternal  principle  of  the  divine  government  of  the 
world,  the  absolute  necessity,  for  a  nation's  continued 
vitality,  of  that  righteousness,  personal,  civic,  and 
national,  which  alone  exalteth  a  nation." 

The  Messianic  Outlook.  In  a  broad  sense,  i.  15 
is  of  Messianic  import.  The  downfall  of  Nineveh  and 
Assyria  prepares  the  way  for  the  permanent  redemption 
and  exaltation  of  Zion:  "the  wicked  one  shall  no 
more  pass  through  thee." 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  175 

III.    HABAKKUK 
OCCASION  OF  THE  PROPHECY 

Questioning  of  the  Divine  Providence.  In  the  Book 
of  Habakkuk  a  new  type  of  prophecy  appears.  The 
prophets  were  primarily  preachers  and  teachers  of  re- 
ligion and  ethics.  They  addressed  themselves  to  their 
fellow  countrymen  in  an  attempt  to  win  them  back 
to  Jehovah  and  a  righteous  life.  Not  so  Habakkuk. 
He  addresses  himself  to  Jehovah,  questioning  the 
justice  or  even  the  reality  of  the  Divine  Providence. 
He  makes  complaint  to  God  and  expostulates  with 
him.  The  prophet  Habakkuk,  therefore,  is  a  fore- 
runner of  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Job.  "As  a  whole 
his  book  is  the  fruit  of  religious  reflection;  it  exhibits 
the  communings  and  questionings  of  his  soul — repre- 
sentative, no  doubt,  of  many  other  pious  spirits  of  the 
time — ^with  God;  and  records  the  answers  which  the 
Spirit  of  God  taught  him  for  his  own  sake  and  for  the 
sake  of  tried  souls  in  every  age." 

The  Moral  Background  of  the  Prophecy.  Neither 
the  book  itself  nor  any  other  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment throws  any  light  on  the  personal  history  of  the 
author.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  he  lived  under 
King  Jehoiakim.  The  pious  and  well-meaning  Josiah 
had  been  slain  in  an  attempt  to  stop  the  advance  of 
Egypt  against  Assyria.  With  his  death  the  brief  era 
of  reform  came  to  an  end.  After  a  reign  of  three  months 
Jehoahaz  was  deposed  by  Pharaoh-necoh,  who  placed 
Jehoiakim  on  the  throne.  The  latter  was  selfish,  ty- 
rannical, and  godless.  In  a  short  time  the  deplorable 
conditions  of  Manasseh's  reign  returned.  It  was  this 
situation  that  caused  the  prophet's  first  perplexity? 
"O  Jehovah,  how  long  shall  I  cry,  and  thou  wilt  not 


X7ff  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

hear?    I  cry  out  unto  thee  of  violence,  and  thou  wilt 
not  save"  (i.  2). 

The  Historical  Background.  But  the  contents  of  the 
book  enable  us  to  fix  the  date  of  Habakkuk  somewhat 
more  definitely.  The  Chaldeans,  whose  advance  against 
Judah  is  announced  in  i.  5-1 1,  were  the  successors  of 
the  Assyrians  as  the  conquerors  and  possessors  of 
Western  Asia.  Now,  the  verses  referred  to  indicate 
(i)  that  the  Chaldeans  had  not  yet  come  into  direct 
contact  with  Judah,  and  (2)  that  they  already  had 
given  exhibitions  of  the  cruel  character  of  their  warfare. 
Nebuchadnezzar  made  Judah  tributary  about  600 
B.  C;  hence  Habakkuk  must  have  prophesied  before 
that  date.  The  first  real  test  of  the  Chaldean  power 
was  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  in  605-604,  in  which 
Egypt  suffered  a  decisive  defeat.  From  that  time  on, 
and  even  before  that  date,  during  the  final  struggle 
with  Nineveh  and  against  minor  foes,  the  Chaldeans 
had  abundant  opportunities  to  reveal  their  true  char- 
acter, when  the  prophet  and  his  contemporaries  might 
become  acquainted  with  this  heartless  successor  of 
Nineveh.  Hence  the  prophetic  activity  of  Habakkuk 
may  be  assigned  to  a  date  shortly  before  600  B.  C. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  HABAKKUK 

The  Book  of  Habakkuk  falls  naturally  into  three 
parts:  (i)  The  prophet's  twofold  perplexity  and  the 
divine  solutions  (i.  2 — 2.  5);  (2)  A  taunt-song  over 
the  downfall  of  the  Chaldeans  (2.  6-20);  (3)  The 
"prayer"  of  Habakkuk  (chapter  3). 

The  First  Perplexity  and  its  Solution,  i.  i-ii. 
The  prophecy  opens  with  a  complaint  about  the  seem- 
ing indifference  of  Jehovah  in  the  presence  of  wide- 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  177 

spread  corruption  in  Judah.  The  prophet  is  perplexed, 
for  he  cannot  reconcile  this  indifference  with  his  con- 
ception of  the  character  of  Jehovah  (i.  2-4).  In  reply- 
Jehovah  declares  that  judgment  is  about  to  be  executed ; 
the  executioners  are  to  be  the  Chaldeans  (5-1 1). 

The  Second  Perplexity  and  its  Solution,  i.  12 — 2.  5. 
This  announcement,  instead  of  removing  the  prophet's 
perplexity,  only  intensifies  it.  Can  a  holy  God  condone 
the  cruelties  perpetrated  by  the  Chaldeans?  Judah, 
indeed,  deserves  punishment,  but  how  can  a  pure  and 
righteous  God  employ  the  godless  Chaldeans  as  his 
executioners  ?  Is  Judah  to  be  utterly  annihilated  by  this 
monster?  Is  the  triumph  of  the  Chaldeans  to  con- 
tinue forever?  These  and  similar  questions  present  a 
new  problem,  which  taxes  his  faith  to  the  utmost 
(12-17).  But  he  will  not  permit  his  faith  to  be  wrecked ; 
he  will  wait  until  he  receives  a  divine  solution  (2.  i). 
He  does  not  wait  in  vain.  Jehovah  grants  a  solution  in 
the  form  of  an  inner  vision,  which  is  to  be  made  known 
to  all.  The  vision  is  to  be  written  down  (2),  because 
the  fulfillment  will  be  delayed  until  the  appointed  time. 
When  it  arrives  the  record  on  the  tablet  will  testify 
to  the  truthfulness  of  Jehovah  and  of  his  prophet  (3). 

The  contents  of  the  vision  are  stated  in  brief  enig- 
matical form:  "Behold,  his  soul  is  puffed  up,  it  is  not 
upright  in  him;  but  the  righteous  shall  live  by  his 
faith."  The  meaning  of  this  message  is  that  there  is  a 
moral  distinction  between  the  Chaldeans  and  the  peo- 
ple of  Jehovah.  The  one  puffed  up,  glorying  in  his  own 
might  as  his  god,  and  insincere  in  his  dealings  with 
other  nations,  lacks  the  moral  elements  which  alone 
insure  permanence,  while  the  other  possesses  the  fidelity 
and  moral  integrity  which  mean  permanence;  he  can- 


I7«      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

not  perish,  but  will  endure  forever  (4).  Bearing  in 
mind  this  moral  distinction,  the  prophet  may  rest 
assured  that  in  the  end  the  righteous  Jews  will  triumph 
while  the  ungodly  Chaldeans  must  perish.  There  fol- 
lows a  verse  that  describes  more  fully  the  character 
of  the  Chaldeans  (5). 

A  Taunt-song  over  the  Downfall  of  Babylon,  2.  6-20. 
The  doom  of  the  cruel  oppressor  is  determined  in  the 
divine  councils,  therefore  the  wronged  nations  may 
begin  to  rejoice  over  his  downfall.  These  nations 
the  prophet  introduces  as  taking  up  a  taunt-song 
against  the  doomed  Chaldeans.  It  is  in  the  form  of 
five  woes  upon  the  evil  traits  in  the  enemy's  character 
and  his  deeds  of  cruelty:  (i)  upon  lust  of  conquest 
and  plunder  (6-8) ;  (2)  upon  rapacity  (9-1 1) ;  (3)  upon 
the  building  of  cities  with  the  blood  and  property  of 
strangers  (12-14);  (4)  upon  cruelty  toward  con- 
quered kings  and  nations  (15-17);  (5)  upon  idolatry 
(18-20). 

The  Prayer  of  Habakkuk,  Chapter  3.  The  prophecy 
closes  with  a  lyrical  passage  (3.  1-19),  called  in  the 
title  "prayer."  In  a  broad  sense  the  entire  chapter  is 
a  prayer,  though  only  verse  2  contains  a  petition,  "O 
Jehovah,  revive  thy  work  in  the  midst  of  the  years; 
in  the  midst  of  the  years  make  it  known;  in  wrath 
remember  mercy."  The  petitioner  speaks  for  himself 
and  the  community.  He  remembers  the  mighty  works 
of  Jehovah  for  his  people ;  the  thought  of  them  causes 
him  to  tremble;  nevertheless  he  calls  for  a  repetition 
of  the  ancient  manifestations  (2).  In  majestic  pic- 
tures the  poet  describes  the  wonderful  appearances 
of  Jehovah  in  the  past.  He  came  forth  in  awful  bright- 
ness, nature  and  men  trembled  before  him,  the  rivers 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  179 

and  the  sea  were  dried  up,  the  sun  and  the  moon  hid 
themselves  in  terror  (3-1 1).  All  this  was  done  for 
his  chosen  people  (12-15).  ^^  the  remaining  verses 
the  psalmist  describes  his  own  feelings  at  the  remem- 
brance of  these  manifestations:  at  first,  fear  and  trem- 
bling (i6a),  then  joy  and  confidence  in  the  God  of  his 
salvation.  Whatever  the  temporary  hardships  and 
wants,  Jehovah  is  his  portion,  and  in  due  time  will 
prove  himself  the  God  of  his  salvation  (i6b-i9). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HABAKKUK 

Habakkuk  the  Prophet  of  Faith.  Habakkuk  has 
been  called  the  prophet  of  faith.  He  possessed  a  strong, 
living  faith  in  Jehovah;  but  he,  like  many  other  pious 
souls,  was  troubled  and  perplexed  by  the  apparent 
inequalities  of  life.  He  found  it  difficult  to  reconcile 
these  with  his  lofty  conception  of  Jehovah.  Never- 
theless, he  does  not  sulk;  boldly  he  presents  his  per- 
plexity to  Jehovah,  who  points  the  way  to  a  solution, 
and  the  prophet  comes  forth  from  his  struggle  with  a 
faith  stronger  and  more  intense  than  ever. 

We  might  expect  that  a  man  with  such  firm  hold 
on  God,  and  with  such  a  living  experience  of  God, 
would  give  expression,  even  in  a  brief  book,  to  some 
great  and  permanent  truths;  and  in  this  instance  our 
expectations  are  not  disappointed.  Habakkuk  was  a 
contemporary  of  Jeremiah,  but  he  differs  from  him  in  a 
marked  manner.  Jeremiah  is  forever  denouncing  the 
sins  of  the  people;  of  the  Chaldeans  he  speaks  alrriost 
exclusively  as  the  instruments  of  Jehovah;  he  has 
little  to  say  about  their  cruelties,  and  does  not  con- 
demn them.  Habakkuk,  on  the  other  hand,  devotes 
only  three  verses  (i.    2-4)  to  the  sins  of  Judah;   and, 


i8o      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

while  recognizing  the  Chaldeans  as  instruments  of 
Jehovah,  he  condemns  them  persistently  for  their 
wrong-doing,  and  the  climax  of  the  prophecy  is  the 
affirmation  of  their  ultimate  annihilation.  In  this  the 
prophet  resembles  Nahum,  who,  like  Habakkuk,  was 
concerned  primarily  with  the  cruelties  and  the  doom 
of  the  oppressor. 

It  is  in  connection  with  his  attempts  to  solve  the 
perplexing  problems  raised  by  the  unpunished  sins  of 
his  countrymen  and  the  unlimited  success  of  the  Chal- 
deans that  Habakkuk  gives  utterance  to  two  sublime 
truths : 

1 .  The  Universal  Supremacy  of  Jehovah.  The  latter 
is  interested  not  only  in  Israel.  Though  Habakkuk, 
like  the  other  prophets,  believes  in  a  special  Divine 
Providence  over  Israel,  he  is  equally  convinced  that 
Jehovah's  rule  embraces  the  whole  earth ;  the  destinies  of 
all  the  nations  are  in  his  hand.  The  Chaldeans  are  pun- 
ished not  merely  for  their  sins  against  Judah,  but  for 
the  oppression  of  other  nations  as  well.  Being  the 
only  God,  he  cannot  permit  the  worship  of  other 
deities.  Temporarily  the  Chaldeans  may  worship 
idols,  or  make  might  their  god,  they  may  "sacrifice 
unto  their  nets,"  and  bum  incense  "unto  their  drag," 
because  by  them  "their  portion  is  fat  and  their  food 
plenteous";  but  Jehovah  is  from  everlasting,  the  Holy 
One,  and  he  will  attest  his  supremacy  by  utterly 
destroying  the  boastful  conqueror  with  his  idols. 

2.  Faithfulness  the  Guarantee  of  Permanency.  The 
second  important  truth  is  expressed  in  2.  4,  "The 
righteous  shall  live  by  his  faithfulness."  Faithfulness 
assures  permanency.  The  thought  expressed  by  the 
prophet  is  not  identical  with  that  expressed  by  the 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  181 

apostle  who  quotes  the  words  (Gal.  3.  11);  neverthe- 
less the  former  also  gives  expression  to  a  truth  of  pro- 
found significance,  "Faithfulness"  is  with  the  prophet 
an  external  thing;  it  signifies  integrity,  fidelity,  stead- 
fastness under  all  provocations;  but  this  implies,  in  a 
real  sense,  the  New  Testament  conception  of  faith  as  an 
active  principle  of  right  conduct.  A  living  faith  de- 
termines conduct;  religion  and  ethics  go  hand  in  hand, 
and  especially  in  the  hour  of  adversity  a  belief  in 
Jehovah  and  unflinching  reliance  upon  him  are  the 
strongest  preservers  of  fidelity  and  integrity.  Faith 
without  works  is  dead;  faith  expresses  itself  in  life. 
Habakkuk  places  chief  emphasis  upon  the  expressions 
of  faith,  and  he  does  so  rightly;  but  in  doing  this  he 
also  calls  attention,  by  implication  at  least,  to  the 
motive  power  behind  the  external  manifestations.  As 
an  expression  of  living  faith  3.  17-19  is  not  surpassed 
in  the  Old  Testament. 

IV.    OBADIAH 

DATE  AlTD  PURPOSE  OF  THE  PROPHECY  OF  OBADIAH 

Why  Grouped  with  the  Contemporaries  01  Jere- 
miah. Nothing  is  known  of  the  author  of  this,  the 
shortest  book  in  the  Old  Testament.  Nor  is  the  date 
of  its  origin  altogether  beyond  doubt.  However,  it 
may  be  considered  in  this  chapter  because  (i)  there 
are  close  resemblances  between  Obad.  1-9  and  Jer. 
49.  7-20;  and  (2),  whatever  the  exact  date  of  com- 
position, it  is  quite  evident  that  the  author  looks  back 
to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  586,  with  which  the 
prophet  Jeremiah  is  associated. 

Historical  Background  of  Obadiah.  The  date  of  the 
prophecy,  which  is  even  at  the  present  time  a  subject 


i82      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  much  discussion,  must  be  determined  upon  the 
basis  of  internal  evidence,  more  especially  the  histor- 
ical references  in  11-14.  These  verses  presuppose  a 
capture  and  devastation  of  Jerusalem  as  an  accom- 
plished fact.  If  the  time  of  this  disaster  can  be  de- 
termined the  earliest  possible  date  of  the  utterance  is 
fixed.  Now,  the  Old  Testament  records  four  occasions 
when  the  capital  of  the  southern  kingdom  fell  into  the 
hands  of  invaders,  but  only  the  last  of  these,  the  cat- 
astrophe of  586,  satisfies  the  language  of  the  verses 
indicated ;  and  we  may  safely  assert  that  the  prophecy 
in  its  present  form  comes  from  a  date  subsequent  to 
586  B.C. 

Relations  of  Israel  and  Edom.  The  prophecy 
Bhould  be  understood  as  a  denunciation  of  Edom's 
hostility  during  the  crisis  which  resulted  in  the  down- 
fall of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  True,  the  historical 
books  do  not  name  Edom  as  taking  an  active  part  in 
the  attack  on  Jerusalem,  but  the  Old  Testament 
asserts  again  and  again  that  the  Edomites  were  bitter 
enemies  of  the  Israelites;  and  it  is  evident  from  refer- 
ences in  other  exilic  and  postexilic  writings  that  dur- 
ing the  closing  days  of  Judah's  national  existence  the 
old  hostile  spirit  revived.  In  Lamentations  the  poet 
bids  the  daughter  of  Edom  rejoice  and  be  glad  over  the 
fall  of  Judah;  but  he  immediately  adds  a  threat  of 
vengeance  (4.  21).  Ezekiel  also  announces  the  doom 
of  Edom  (25.  12-14;  35-  1-15);  and  in  Psa.  137  the 
poet  recalls  with  indignation  the  malice  of  the  Edom- 
ites. This  spirit  of  hostility  the  prophet  condemns 
in  verses  11-14. 

Date  of  the  Utterance.  The  earliest  date,  then,  of 
the  prophecy  in  its  present  form  is  586.     How  much 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  183 

farther  down  it  is  necessary  to  go  is  somewhat  un- 
certain. There  are  many  scholars  who  assign  the 
little  book  to  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  or  even 
later;  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  those  equally 
competent,  who  believe  it  unnecessary  to  go  down 
so  far.  There  is  nothing  in  15-21  that  presupposes 
the  return  from  exile.  In  fact,  everything — the  hopes 
of  restoration,  of  the  destruction  of  Edom,  and  of  the 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God — points  to  the 
period  before  the  restoration.  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
the  most  probable  date  would  seem  to  be  soon  after 
586,  when  the  memory  of  Edom's  hostility  was  still 
fresh  in  the  mind  of  the  author. 

Obadiah  and  Jeremiah.  No  one  can  read  Obad. 
1-9  and  Jer.  49.  7-22,  without  feeling  that  the  marked 
resemblances  between  the  two  passages  cannot  be 
mere  coincidence.  Hence  they  must  be  explained 
in  one  of  three  ways:  Either  Obadiah  borrowed  from 
Jeremiah,  or  Jeremiah  borrowed  from  Obadiah,  or 
both  utilized  for  their  own  purposes  an  older  prophecy. 

Though  the  question  cannot  be  determined  with 
absolute  certainty,  on  the  whole  it  seems  most  proba- 
ble that  the  two  prophets  derived  the  elements  com- 
mon to  them  from  an  earlier  prophecy,  which  Obadiah 
incorporated  with  few  alterations,  while  Jeremiah 
treated  it  with  greater  freedom.  Obadiah  may  have 
been  familiar  not  only  with  the  original  prophecy,  but 
also  with  the  utterance  of  Jeremiah  depending  upon 
it.  On  the  whole,  the  earlier  prophecy  would  be  the 
same  as  Obad.  1-9,  which  contains  no  allusions  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  This  older  utterance  the 
prophet  appropriated  after  the  fall  of  the  holy  city 
and  expanded  it  in  verses  10-21,  imitating  to  some 


i84      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

extent  the  language  of  the  earlier  portion.  The  date 
and  occasion  of  the  earlier  prophecy  cannot  be  fixed 
with  certainty. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  OBADIAH 

The  Destruction  of  Edom,  Verses  1-9.  Following  the 
brief  title,  the  prophet  announces  his  theme:  He  is 
charged  with  heavy  tidings  against  Edom.  An  am- 
bassador is  gone  forth  from  Edom  to  summon  the  sur- 
rounding nations  to  war  against  Judah  (i);  but 
Jehovah  will  thwart  the  scheme.  He  can  no  longer 
endure  the  ill  treatment  of  his  people,  therefore  he  has 
decreed  the  downfall  of  the  house  of  Esau  (2).  Noth- 
ing can  save.  Though  the  Edomites  think  themselves 
secure  in  their  lofty  rock-hewn  dwellings,  though  they 
may  rise  up  like  eagles  and  build  their  nests  among  the 
stars,  Jehovah  will  bring  them  down  and  humble  them 
(3,  4).  The  destruction  will  be  complete;  nothing 
will  escape  the  invader  (5,  6).  The  nations  with  which 
Edom  sought  alliances  will  prove  treacherous;  her 
own  men  of  wisdom  and  of  war  will  be  cut  off  (7-9). 

The  Sins  of  Edom,  Verses  10-16.  The  judgment 
will  fall  because  Edom  has  done  violence  to  Jacob  in 
the  day  of  Jerusalem's  calamity  (10,  11).  The  prophet, 
either  in  reality  or  in  imagination,  sees  the  Edomites 
rejoicing  in  their  inhumanities,  and  bids  them  to  de- 
sist from  cruel  looks  and  words  (12),  from  overt  acts 
of  spoliation  (13),  and  from  cutting  off  the  fugitives 
at  the  crossways  and  delivering  to  the  enemies  "those 
of  his  that  remain  in  the  day  of  distress  "  (14). 

From  the  description  of  the  crimes  the  prophet 
turns  once  more  to  the  retribution.  The  Edomites  are 
to  be  cut  off  forever;  and  though  the  judgment  will 
fall  upon  all  nations,  Edom  will  suffer  most  (15,  16). 


CONTEMPORARIES  OF  JEREMIAH  185 

The  Exaltation  of    the   Jews,  Verses    17-21.     The 

announcement  of  doom  upon  the  nations  is  followed 
by  a  promise  of  restoration  to  Israel.  A  remnant  will 
escape  in  Mount  Zion  (17),  The  redeemed  of  the 
house  of  Jacob  and  of  the  house  of  Joseph  will  be  used 
by  God  to  bring  destruction  upon  the  house  of  Esau 
(18).  Edom  destroyed,  the  territory  of  the  purified 
remnant  will  be  extended  in  every  direction  (19,  20). 
Saviours  will  arise  in  Zion,  whose  sway  will  extend 
over  the  mountain  of  Esau,  and  over  all  will  be  es- 
tablished the  rule  of  Jehovah  (21). 

TEACHING  OF  OBADIAH 

The  prophet  has  a  twofold  purpose:  (i)  To  an- 
nounce judgment  upon  Edom;  (2)  By  this  announce- 
ment to  bring  comfort  and  hope  to  the  cruelly  wronged 
people  of  God.  In  setting  forth  these  convictions  the 
prophet,  directly  or  indirectly,  gives  expression  to 
several  truths  prominent  in  all  the  prophetic  books. 
The  more  important  of  these  are:  i.  The  special 
interest  of  Jehovah  in  Israel.  Temporarily  he  may 
permit  her  enemies  to  triumph,  but  in  the  end  he  must 
vindicate  himself  and  his  people.  2.  Obadiah  shares 
with  other  prophets  the  hope  for  the  establishment 
of  a  new  kingdom  of  God,  centering  in  Mount  Zion 
and  Jerusalem.  3.  Holiness  will  be  the  chief  char- 
acteristic of  the  new  kingdom.  4.  There  is  no  direct 
reference  to  a  Messianic  king;  "the  kingdom  shall  be 
Jehovah's."  However,  the  saviours  mentioned  in  verse 
21  are  representatives  of  Jehovah  like  the  Messianic 
king  of  other  prophetic  books.  5.  Obadiah  does 
not  look  for  the  conversion  of  the  nations  outside  of 
Israel;   nothing  but  disaster  is  awaiting  them  (16-18). 


CHAPTER  IX 
EZEKIEL 

JUDAH  m  EXILE 

Causes  of  Judah's  Downfall.  The  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  in  586  marked  the  close  of  the  national  life 
of  the  Hebrews.  Judah,  like  the  northern  kingdom, 
went  to  its  doom  in  accordance  with  the  same  un- 
changeable laws  that  operate  in  the  lives  of  all  nations. 
Religious,  social,  and  moral  corruption  will  inevitably 
cause  national  disintegration.  In  the  case  of  Judah 
selfish  and  inefficient  rulers  had  hastened  the  process 
by  the  pursuit  of  a  weak  and  vacillating  policy  that 
brought  upon  them  the  destructive  wrath  of  the  Chal- 
deans. 

Difference  between  Israel  and  Judah.  But  there 
was  a  difference  between  the  downfall  of  Judah  and 
that  of  Israel.  The  latter  was  soon  swallowed  up  by 
the  surrounding  nations,  and  never  again  played  an 
important  part  in  the  religious  history  of  the  world. 
This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  in  Israel  religion  had  not 
advanced  beyond  the  national  stage,  so  that,  when 
the  nation  was  destroyed,  religion,  which  was  bound  to 
the  national  institutions,  could  not  maintain  itself, 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  lives  of  a  few  individuals,  who 
were  not  numerous  enough  to  save  it.  In  Judah  it  was 
different.  Jeremiah's  teaching  and  activity  made  it 
possible  for  religion  to  live,  though  the  temple,  the 
holy  city,  and  the  state  should  go  to  ruin.  He  de- 
nationalized religion,  he  individualized  and  spiritualized 

186 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  187 

it,  so  that  many  came  to  see  that  they  might  continue 
as  true  worshipers  of  Jehovah,  no  matter  what 
became  of  the  external  religious  institutions.  Un- 
doubtedly, when  the  final  crisis  came,  many  failed  to 
endure  the  test  and  went  the  way  of  their  brothers 
in  the  north;  nevertheless,  a  considerable  number  of 
Jews  overcame  their  environment,  and  their  faith  in 
Jehovah,  the  one  and  only  God,  triumphed.  However, 
these  faithful  ones  were  not  found  among  those  who 
were  left  behind  in  Judah,  nor  among  the  fugitives  who 
fled  to  Egypt,  but  in  the  groups  of  Jewish  captives  that 
had  been  carried  to  Babylonia  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  597  and  586.  Upon  these  exiles  depended  the  future 
of  the  Jewish  race  and  of  the  Jewish  religion. 

The  Two  Exiles.  The  first  exile  occurred  in  597, 
when  the  leaders  and  the  more  substantial  men  in  the 
southern  kingdom  were  carried  away.  Nebuchadnezzar 
contented  himself  with  removing  the  "heads  and  the 
hands"  of  the  nation,  in  the  hope  that  by  this  act  he 
would  make  the  population  left  behind  incapable  of 
organized  resistance.  From  this  time  on  to  the  second 
deportation  in  586  the  life  of  the  Jews  ran  in  two  paral- 
lel streams,  one  in  Judah,  the  other  in  Babylonia. 
But  the  Babylonian  king  was  disappointed.  The 
enfeebled  remnant  left  behind  quickly  regained  its 
military  efficiency,  and  in  a  few  years  a  new  struggle 
ensued,  which  resulted  in  a  second  exile,  when  a  much 
larger  portion  of  the  population  was  carried  away. 

External  Condition  of  the  Exiles.  The  condition 
of  the  exiles  in  Babylonia  was  fairly  comfortable.  They 
appear  to  have  been  free  in  all  respects  except  choice 
of  residence.  Sections  of  land  were  assigned  to  them, 
where  they  had  the  opportunity  to  acquire  property 


i88      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

and  even  to  amass  wealth.  Many  heeded  the  advice 
of  Jeremiah  (29.  5-7),  identified  themselves  with  the 
interests  of  their  masters,  and  lived  settled  lives  in 
peaceful  industry  and  family  happiness.  Permission 
was  granted  to  them  to  form  settlements  under  their 
own  elders,  who  in  all  probability  organized  the  new 
communities  after  the  pattern  of  Palestinian  towns. 
Religious  as  well  as  civil  liberty  was  granted,  so  that 
in  its  general  aspects  the  life  in  Babylonia  may  have 
differed  but  little  from  that  in  the  small  towns  of  Judah 
before  the  fall  of  the  state. 

Religious  and  Moral  Conditions  of  the  Exiles.  Re- 
ligious and  moral  conditions  may  have  continued  for 
some  time  as  they  were  before  the  exile.  True,  both 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  consider  the  exiles  better  than  the 
Jews  left  behind,  and  they  see  in  the  former  the  nucleus 
of  the  Messianic  kingdom ;  nevertheless,  the  conditions 
which  confronted  Jeremiah  in  Jerusalem  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  which  troubled  Ezekiel  among 
the  exiles.  Many  of  the  captives  conformed  to  Baby- 
lonian customs  and  forgot  Jerusalem.  Idolatry  and 
superstition  were  widespread,  and  some  seemed  to 
think  that  idolatry  was  perfectly  compatible  with  a 
nominal  allegiance  to  Jehovah  (Ezek.  14.  iff.;  20.  iff.). 
During  the  years  preceding  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  false 
prophets  appeared  among  the  exiles  prophesying 
smooth  things  and  promising  a  speedy  restoration 
(Jer.  29.  8ff.),  and  they  persuaded  many  to  oppose 
the  earnest  and  severe  message  of  Ezekiel  (Ezek.  2.  3!?. ; 
3.  4ff.).  The  sense  of  personal  responsibility,  which 
Jeremiah  had  sought  to  create  in  Judah,  was  but 
slightly  felt  by  the  great  majority  in  exile.  Many  were 
the  complaints  that  they  had  to  bear  the  sins  of  their 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  189 

ancestors  (18.  2,  25;  33.  10,  17,  20;  37.  11).  It  is  seen, 
then,  that  the  great  mass  of  people  had  failed  to  leam 
the  lessons  which  the  judgment  of  exile  was  to  teach 
them. 

The  Faithful  among  the  Exiles.  Nevertheless,  there 
were  in  exile  many  men  of  piety  and  zeal,  who  re- 
tained their  faith  in  Jehovah;  yea,  whose  faith  was 
purified  and  intensified  by  the  experiences  of  the  exile. 
They  were  ready  to  follow  the  teaching  of  any  great 
soul  who  might  attempt  to  lead  them  to  higher  and 
diviner  things.  Among  these  choice  spirits  Ezekiel 
found  a  congenial  sphere  of  activity.  In  every  crisis 
of  Hebrew  history  prophecy  had  been  a  mighty  power 
for  good.  The  prophets  had  foretold  the  captivity, 
and  it  had  now  come.  But  they  had  also  foretold  the 
restoration  of  a  remnant;  and  it  was  this  prediction 
that  now  sustained  the  faithful  exiles.  Ezekiel' s  glow- 
ing words  kept  alive  the  hope,  and  at  the  same  time 
tended  to  bring  the  whole  people  into  a  more  vital 
relation  with  their  God,  such  as  Jeremiah  had  em- 
phasized, and  as  individuals  here  and  there  had  en- 
joyed even  before  the  exile.  Self-examination  and  con- 
trition for  the  past  led  to  a  return  to  Jehovah,  and  the 
exiles  came  to  see  more  and  more  that,  after  all,  true 
religion  did  not  depend  upon  the  existence  of  the  state, 
or  the  sacred  city,  or  the  temple  itself,  but  upon 
the  relation  of  the  individual  to  his  God.  For  the 
history  of  Judaism  and  of  religion  in  general  the  Baby- 
lonian exile  was  of  the  greatest  significance. 

THE  PERSONAL  LIFE  OF  EZEKIEL 

EzekiePs    Preparation    for     the     Prophetic    Office. 

Ezekiel,  the  son  of  Buzi,  was  a  priest  (i.  3).  As  such 
he  belonged  to  the  aristocracy  in  Jerusalem  and  was 


I90      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

carried  into  exile  in  597.  Little  or  nothing  is  known 
of  his  earlier  life.  His  familiarity  with  the  priestly 
ritual  may  suggest  that  he  was  old  enough  when  he 
left  Jerusalem  to  have  officiated  for  some  time  in  the 
national  sanctuary.  The  authority  with  which  he 
speaks  and  the  deference  shown  him  by  his  fellow  exiles 
also  suggest  that  he  was  no  longer  in  his  first  youth 
when  he  assumed  the  prophetic  office.  If  so,  he  may 
have  been  acquainted  with  Jeremiah ;  and  the  numerous 
points  of  contact  between  the  two  prophets  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  he  was  a  disciple  of  the  older  man, 
or  at  least  that  the  latter's  teaching  had  made  a  pro- 
found impression  upon  him.  "In  his  character  and 
work  these  two  currents  of  influence — the  priestly  and 
prophetical — constantly  appear,  and  their  harmonious 
blending  is  one  of  the  great  sources  of  his  power."  He 
undoubtedly  knew  of  the  reform  era  under  Josiah  and 
he  lived  through  the  reactionary  reign  of  Jehoiakim. 
When  he  entered  the  prophetic  office  conditions 
among  his  fellow  exiles  must  have  been  bad;  at  any 
rate,  he  had  a  very  low  opinion  of  his  countrymen 
in  Jerusalem  and  in  Babylonia.  He  calls  them  "re- 
bellious, .  .  .  impudent,  .  .  .  stifif-hearted,  .  .  .  briers, 
.  .  .  thorns,  .  .  .  scorpions"  (chapters  2  and  3). 

Ezekiel  in  Babylonia.  In  Babylonia  he  was  settled 
in  a  community  of  exiles  at  Tel-Abib — perhaps,  more 
accurately,  Tel-Abub — by  the  river  Chebar.  There 
he  lived  with  his  wife  in  his  own  house  (3.  24),  where 
in  later  years  the  elders  came  to  listen  to  him  (8.  i). 
The  prophetic  call  came  to  him  in  the  fifth  year  of 
his  exile,  that  is,  in  593  or  592  (i.  2fTf.).  His  own  ac- 
count of  this  spiritual  crisis  reveals  the  two  motives 
which  influenced  him  throughout  his  entire  ministry: 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  191 

on  the  one  hand,  the  vision  of  the  majesty,  glory,  and 
purity  of  Jehovah;  on  the  other  hand,  the  reahzation 
of  the  startHng  contrast  between  the  character  of  his 
countrymen  and  the  divine  ideal  for  them.  Henceforth 
his  sole  ambition  was  to  persuade  the  house  of  Israel 
to  realize  this  divine  ideal. 

Activity  to  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem.  Until  586,  when 
Jerusalem  fell,  Ezekiel  devoted  himself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  combating  the  false  hopes  of  a  speedy 
restoration  entertained  by  many  both  in  Jerusalem  and 
in  exile.  It  is  only  natural  that  during  this  period 
denunciations  and  threats  should  predominate.  His 
message  was  received  no  more  kindly  than  was  that  of 
Jeremiah  (3.  25).  Toward  the  close  of  this  period  the 
prophet's  wife  died  (24.  16-18).  This  bereavement 
came  near  the  beginning  of  the  last  siege  of  Jerusalem 
and  marked  the  close  of  Ezekiel's  earlier  ministry. 
During  this  period  prophecies  are  dated  in  the  fifth, 
sixth,  seventh,  and  ninth  years  of  Jehoiachin's  cap- 
tivity. While  the  siege  was  in  progress  the  prophet 
seems  to  have  refrained  from  speaking  (24.  27),  but 
when  the  news  of  the  city's  fall  reached  him  he  spoke 
again  {t,t,.  22).  During  the  period  of  silence  he  wrote 
prophecies  concerning  Egypt   (29.   i;    30.   20;    31.   i). 

Later  Activity.  When  his  predictions  of  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  were  fulfilled  a  great  change  came  over  the 
popular  attitude;  henceforth  Ezekiel  enjoyed  the 
veneration  of  all  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  and  his  in- 
fluence extended  to  his  fellow  believers  everywhere. 
His  message  also  assumed  a  different  aspect,  for  he 
now  dwelt  more  and  more  upon  the  coming  restora- 
tion. According  to  the  dates  given  in  the  book,  this 
period  of  activity  was  short,  and  was  succeeded  by 


192      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

many  years  of  silence.  No  date  is  given  between  the 
twelfth  and  the  twenty-fifth  year  (32.  17;  40.  i).  Dur- 
ing this  interval  the  prophet's  conviction  of  a  resto- 
ration grew,  and  at  the  close  he  composed  a  complete, 
detailed  scheme  for  the  establishment  of  a  religious 
community  upon  Palestinian  soil,  in  which  the  will 
of  God  would  be  supreme  law  (chapters  40-48). 

Peculiarity  of  Ezekiel's  Work.  In  spirit  and  ear- 
nestness Ezekiel  was  a  prophet  as  truly  as  were  any 
of  the  men  whose  teaching  and  activity  we  have  studied 
thus  far,  but  the  changes  in  the  national  life  gave  a 
new  aspect  to  his  prophetic  activity.  Even  during  the 
years  preceding  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  he  could  not 
address  himself  to  the  nation  in  the  way  in  which  his 
predecessors  had  done,  for  he  and  his  listeners  were  re- 
moved from  the  old  center  of  the  national  and  religious 
life.  Inevitably  the  individual  assumed  an  importance 
undreamed  of  before.  Jeremiah  had  prepared  the  way 
for  this,  and  Ezekiel  followed  in  his  footsteps.  Hither- 
to public  discourse  had  been  the  principal  means  of 
prophetic  instruction;  Ezekiel  continued  to  use  this 
to  some  extent,  but  it  was  impossible  in  exile  to  gather 
crowds  such  as  might  be  collected  in  Jerusalem,  to 
listen  to  the  addresses  of  a  prophet.  Ezekiel  had  to 
deal  with  individuals  and  small  groups  of  individuals, 
and  he  readily  adapted  himself  to  the  changed  con- 
ditions. He  became  preeminently  a  pastor,  a  shepherd, 
devoting  himself  to  the  care  of  those  who  came  under 
his  immediate  charge.  He  frequently  designates 
himself  a  watchman,  appointed  by  God  (3.  17).  He 
clearly  defines  his  pastoral  responsibilities:  If  he  faith- 
fully warns  those  who  are  committed  to  his  care  he  is 
innocent  in  the  sight  of  God,  but  if  he  fails  in  his  duty 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  193 

their  blood  will  be  required  of  him  (^^.  1-9).  His  fellow 
exiles  seem  to  have  fully  recognized  his  position  as 
pastor,  for  they  freely  came  to  consult  him,  either  in 
person  or  through  their  elders  (14.  i ;    t,;^.  30). 

Variety  of  Ezekiel's  Methods  of  Work.  The  variety 
of  methods  which  Ezekiel  employed  to  impress  his 
message  upon  his  countrymen  is  quite  remarkable. 
As  has  been  indicated,  sometimes  he  used  the  method 
of  public  discourse.  In  6.  11,  "Smite  with  thy  hand, 
and  stamp  with  thy  foot,"  we  may  have  a  reference 
to  gestures  as  means  of  making  the  message  more 
impressive.  Frequently  deputations  of  Jews  came 
to  his  house  and  sat  before  him  (14.  i),  which  im- 
plies that  the  interviews  and  discussions  continued 
for  some  time.  At  other  times  he  may  have  put  his 
message  in  the  form  of  pastoral  letters;  indeed,  as 
has  been  suggested,  all  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  "bear 
evidence  of  long  meditation  and  careful  elabora- 
tion. .  .  .  He  dwells  upon  his  subject,  and  expands 
and  develops  his  thought,  in  contrast  to  the  terse, 
sharp  utterances  of  the  older  prophets.  Not  content 
with  an  outline,  he  fills  in  the  details  of  the  picture, 
sometimes  to  the  detriment  of  its  distinctness." 

Parables,  Allegories,  Visions,  Symbolical  Acts.  Eze- 
kiel shows  great  fondness  for  parables  and  allegories 
as  means  of  instruction,  some  of  which  are  developed 
to  considerable  length.  The  book  also  abounds  in 
visions  and  symbolical  actions.  There  seems  in- 
sufficient reason  for  questioning  the  reality  of  all  the 
visions  recorded.  The  prophet  evidently  was  of  a 
highly  imaginative  temperament,  and  so  may  have 
been  subject  to  trances  or  visions.  Certainly,  when 
the  prophet  put  the  visions  in  writing  he  may  have 


194      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

elaborated  them,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  not  alto- 
gether improbable  that  he  used  the  form  of  the  vision 
simply  as  a  literary  device  for  the  purpose  of  making 
his  message  more  vivid.  Some  of  the  symbolical  acts 
recorded  were  undoubtedly  performed  by  the  prophet ; 
on  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  references  to  sym- 
bolical actions  that  are  more  naturally  explained  on 
the  principle  suggested  by  A.  B.  Davidson:  "They  were 
imagined  merely.  They  passed  through  the  prophet's 
mind.  He  lived  in  this  ideal  sphere;  he  went  through 
the  actions  in  his  fantasy,  and  they  appeared  to  him  to 
carry  the  same  effects  as  if  they  had  been  performed." 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  EZEKIEL 

Arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Ezekiel.  The  Book 
of  Ezekiel  was  probably  compiled  by  the  prophet 
himself  toward  the  close  of  his  ministry.  It  consists 
of  three  sections,  dealing  with  three  different  subjects: 

1.  Chapters  1-24,  the  sin  of  Judah  and  its  punishment; 

2.  Chapters  25-32,  oracles  against  foreign  nations;  3. 
Chapters  33-48,  Israel's  future  restoration:  (i)  chap- 
ters 33-39,  prophecies  of  restoration;  (2)  chapters 
40-48,  the  constitution  of  the  restored  Israel. 

The  Inaugural  Vision  of  Ezekiel,  Chapter  i.  The 
first  section  (i.  i — 3.  21)  records  the  prophet's  call  and 
initiation  into  his  ministry.  In  the  Ififth  year  of  his 
exile  (i.  I — 3)  he  had  a  vision  of  Jehovah  in  his  majesty 
and  splendor.  He  saw  a  storm  cloud  advancing  from 
the  north  (4) ;  out  of  it  came  the  likeness  of  four  living 
creatures,  each  with  four  faces  and  wings,  all  moving 
in  the  same  direction  (5-14).  The  four  figures  in- 
closed a  four-sided  chariot  with  four  wheels  (15,  16). 
The  movements  of  the  wheels  corresponded  to  those 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  195 

of  the  creatures,  because  the  same  spirit  was  in  both 
(17-21).  Over  the  heads  of  the  creatures  a  firmament 
was  spread  out  (22-25),  and  above  the  firmament 
was  the  Hkeness  of  a  throne,  upon  which  was  "a  hke- 
ness  as  the  appearance  of  a  man,"  surrounded  by 
brightness,  which  represented  the  glory  of  Jehovah 
(26-28). 

EzekiePs  Appointment  as  a  Prophet,  Chapters  2,  3. 
While  the  vision  passed  before  him  Ezekiel  heard  the 
voice  of  Jehovah  appointing  him  a  prophet  to  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel.  At  the  same  time  he  is  warned  that  his 
message  will  meet  opposition  (2.  1-7).  Then  follows 
a  symbolical  representation  of  the  communication  of 
Jehovah's  words  to  the  prophet.  The  words  are  in- 
scribed on  a  roll,  which  he  eats  at  the  divine  com- 
mand (2.  8 — 3.  3).  Jehovah  repeats  the  commission  1 
He  is  to  be  a  prophet  to  the  house  of  Israel,  not  to  "a 
people  of  a  strange  speech";  but  his  own  people  will 
refuse  to  heed  his  message  (4-9).  His  special  mission 
is  to  those  of  the  house  of  Israel  who  are  in  exile  (10-15). 
Among  the  exiles  at  Tel-abib  there  comes  to  him  the 
consciousness  of  the  real  character  of  his  work;  he  is 
appointed  "a  watchman  unto  the  house  of  Israel," 
and  it  behooves  him  to  discharge  faithfully  the  duties 
of  his  office  (16-21). 

Four  Symbolical  Actions  and  their  Significance,  3. 
22 — 5.  17.  Chapters  3.  22 — 7.  27  contain  a  series  of 
utterances  and  symbolical  actions  announcing  the 
impending  fall  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  Chapter 
3.  22-27  is  introductory.  The  vision  of  Jehovah  comes 
to  him  again,  and  he  is  commanded  to  withdraw 
temporarily  from  his  public  ministry.  In  4.  i — 5.  4 
four  symbolical  actions  are  recorded,  representing  the 


J96      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

siege  of  Jerusalem  (4.  1-3),  the  people  bearing  their 
iniquity  (4-8),  the  privations  undergone  by  the  people 
during  the  siege  and  subsequent  exile  in  an  unclean 
land  (9-17),  and  the  slaughter  and  dispersion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  (5.  1-4).  Then  follows  an 
explanation  of  the  four  symbolical  acts:  Jerusalem, 
favored  more  than  other  nations,  has  surpassed  them 
in  wickedness  (5,  6);  therefore  judgment,  which  will 
come  in  the  forms  of  pestilence,  famine,  sword,  and 
exile,  is  inevitable  (7-17). 

The  Utter  Destruction  of  Judah,  Chapters  6,  7. 
Not  the  city  only  but  the  whole  land — called  "the 
mountains  of  Israel" — is  guilty,  therefore  the  whole 
land  must  suffer.  The  high  places,  the  altars,  and  the 
sun-images,  all  connected  with  idolatrous  worship,  will 
be  destroyed  with  the  worshipers  who  gather  there 
(6.  1-7);  yet  a  faithful  remnant  will  escape  (8-10). 
The  threat  of  utter  devastation  is  repeated.  Chapter 
7  is  a  new  announcement  of  the  downfall  of  Judah. 
The  end  is  come  upon  the  four  comers  of  the  land  (1-4), 
and  upon  its  inhabitants  (5-9),  for  the  abominations 
which  they  have  done.  All  alike  will  be  humiliated 
and  perish  (10-13).  Terror  will  fall  upon  all,  and  little 
resistance  will  be  offered  (14-18) ;  their  silver  and  gold 
will  avail  nothing  in  the  day  of  the  siege  and  will  be- 
come the  prey  of  the  enemy  (19-22).  The  worst  of  the 
nations  will  be  sent  to  punish  their  crimes ;  prophets, 
priests,  and  rulers  will  fail  in  the  hour  of  distress; 
"I  will  do  unto  them  after  their  way,  and  according 
to  their  deserts  will  I  judge  them;  and  they  shall 
know  that  I  am  Jehovah"  (23-27). 

Idolatry  Practiced  in  the  Temple  Precincts,  Chap- 
ter 8.     In  the  sixth  year  of  his  exile,  in  the  sixth 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  197 

month,  on  the  fifth  day,  Ezekiel,  in  the  presence  of 
the  elders  who  had  come  to  consult  him,  fell  into  a 
trance,  in  which  he  was  transported  to  Jerusalem, 
where  a  series  of  events  passed  before  his  eyes  (8.  1-4). 
On  awaking  he  related  all  the  things  he  had  seen 
(11.  25).  The  visions  which  came  to  him  at  that  time 
are  recorded  in  chapters  8-1 1.  Chapter  8  deals  with 
various  forms  of  idolatry  practiced  in  the  precincts 
of  the  temple:  the  image  of  jealousy  (5,  6),  the  secret 
abominations  of  the  elders  (7-13),  the  lamentation 
of  the  women  for  Tammuz  (14,  15),  and  the  worship 
of  the  sun  (16-18). 

Slaughter  of  the  Inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  Chap- 
ter 9.  Chapter  9  portrays  the  slaughter  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city,  Jehovah  summons  the  mes- 
sengers who  are  to  execute  the  judgment  threatened 
in  8.  18.  Six  men  respond  and  stand  by  the  side  of 
the  brazen  altar  (i,  2).  A  mark  is  placed  upon  the 
foreheads  of  the  faithful,  and  all  not  so  marked  are 
slain  (3-7) .  When  the  prophet  sees  the  awful  slaughter 
he  intercedes  and  prays  that  the  slaughter  cease  (8), 
but  he  is  told  that  the  people's  sin  is  too  great  and 
must  be  punished  (^11). 

Jehovah's  Departure  from  the  Sanctuary,  Chap- 
ter 10.  The  prophet  again  beholds  the  cherubim 
and  the  wheels,  which  he  saw  in  his  inaugural  vision 
(10.  1-5,  9-17,  20-22).  At  the  divine  command  burn- 
ing coals  are  taken  from  the  fire  between  the  cherubim 
and  scattered  over  the  city  (2,  6,  7).  Jehovah  leaves 
his  throne,  and  stands  over  the  threshold  of  the  temple 
to  watch  the  execution  of  his  orders  (4-17);  this 
done,  he  resimies  his  seat  upon  his  throne,  and  takes 
his  departure  from  the  sanctuary ..(18,  J9)..    .     .  . 


X98      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Jehovah*s  Departure  from  the  Doomed  Jerusalem, 
Chapter  ii.  He  next  sees  twenty-five  leading  men 
of  the  city  counseling  rebellion,  in  the  belief  that  the 
city  walls  would  offer  ample  protection  (ii.  1-4). 
At  the  divine  command  he  informs  them  that  their 
confidence  is  not  well  founded;  the  city  will  be  taken 
and  they  will  be  dragged  out  and  slain  (5-12).  While 
the  prophet  is  yet  speaking  one  of  the  leaders  drops 
dead;  whereupon,  in  terror,  the  prophet  falls  upon 
his  face  and  prays  for  the  preservation  of  at  least  a 
remnant  (13).  He  is  assured  that  Israel  will  continue 
to  live  in  the  exiles,  who  are  to  be  restored,  and  then 
will  serve  Jehovah  with  a  new  heart  and  a  new  spirit 
(14-20).  The  wicked  Jerusalem  and  its  inhabitants 
must  perish  (21).  Finally  the  prophet  sees  the  glory 
of  Jehovah  depart  from  the  city  and  rest  upon  Mount 
Olives,  in  the  east  (22-25). 

Symbolical  Acts  Portraying  the  Downfall  of  Jeru- 
salem, Chapter  12.  The  certainty  of  the  nation's 
downfall  and  its  cause,  namely,  the  people's  sinfulness, 
is  set  forth  in  a  series  of  discourses  and  symbolical 
acts  recorded  in  chapters  12-19.  The  house  of  Israel 
is  blind  (12.  i,  2),  therefore  a  more  vivid  form  of 
teaching  must  be  adopted  (3).  The  prophet's  prepara- 
tion to  go  into  exile  is  to  symbolize  the  approaching 
exile  of  Zedekiah  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
(3-16).  Another  symbolical  act  is  meant  to  bring 
before  the  people  the  anguish  and  privations  of  the 
impending  exile  (17-20).  Delay  in  the  fulfillment  of 
a  prophecy  does  not  imply  necessarily  nonfulfillment 
(21-25);  Jehovah  will  carry  out  the  present  threat  in 
the  near  future  (26-28). 

The  Lying  Prophets  and  the  Doom  of  the  Corrupt 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  199 

City,  Chapters  13,  14.  In  the  succeeding  verses 
(13,  I — 14.  11)  Ezekiel  takes  up  the  subject  of  lying 
prophets.  The  lying  prophets  are  without  visions, 
hence  they  follow  their  own  spirit  (13.  1-3).  They 
have  deceived  and  are  still  trying  to  deceive  the 
people  (4-7),  therefore  destruction  will  overtake 
them  (8,  9).  Their  message  of  peace  has  led  the 
people  astray,  and  people  and  prophets  will  perish 
alike  (10-16).  The  false  prophetesses,  whose  activities 
are  especially  pernicious,  will  be  severely  punished 
(17-23),  Idolaters  need  expect  no  divinely  given 
message  from  a  prophet  (14.  1-8).  If  a  prophet  is 
deceived  and  prophesies  to  please  the  people,  he  and 
they  will  perish  together  (9-1 1).  The  presence  of 
righteous  persons  is  no  guarantee  of  safety  for  the 
unrighteous;  only  the  righteous  will  escape  (12-20). 
Contrary  to  this  rule  a  few  godless  persons  will  escape 
in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  to  convince  the  exiles 
by  their  unholy  conduct  that  the  judgment  that  has 
fallen  upon  the  city  is  well  merited  (21-23). 

Allegories  Teaching  Jerusalem's  Ripeness  for  Judg- 
ment, Chapters  15,  16.  In  a  series  of  allegories 
the  prophet  points  out  that  Jerusalem  is  ripe  for 
judgment.  Like  a  useless  vine  it  is  about  to  be  cast 
into  the  fire  (i  5 .  1-8) .  By  the  allegory  of  the  foundling 
child  who  became  the  faithless  wife  of  her  benefactor 
the  prophet  shows  the  inevitableness  of  Jerusalem's 
destruction.  In  the  beginning  Jerusalem — represent- 
ing the  whole  nation — was  an  outcast  infant  (16.  1-5), 
but  Jehovah  adopted  her,  and  under  his  care  she 
grew  to  womanhood  (6,  7),  when  he  made  her  his 
wife  (8-14).  But  soon  she  broke  her  marriage  vow, 
and  on  many  occasions  proved  faithless  toJier  husband 


200      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

(15-^4) .  Therefore  the  punishment  of  an  adulteress 
will  be  meted  out  to  her  (35-43)-  She  is  worse  than 
Sodom  and  Samaria  (44-52).  Hence  her  punishment 
will  be  severer  and  will  last  longer  than  that  of  these 
cities.  Only  after  they  are  restored  (53-58)  can  she 
be  restored  to  the  divine  favor  (59-63). 

The  Disloyalty  of  Zedekiah  and  its  Consequences, 
Chapter  17.  The  disloyalty  of  Zedekiah  to  the  king 
of  Babylon  and  its  consequences  is  the  subject  of 
chapter  17.  The  prophet  is  ordered  to  put  forth  a 
riddle  or  parable  (i,  2) :  A  great  eagle  came  to  Lebanon 
and  took  the  top  of  the  cedar,  the  topmost  of  the 
young  twigs,  and  carried  it  to  a  city  of  merchants 
(3,  4).  He  also  took  the  seed  of  the  land,  planted  it 
and  cared  for  it  till  it  became  a  luxuriant  vine  (5,  6). 
There  was  also  another  eagle,  and  in  time  the  vine 
turned  its  branches  toward  him  (7,  8) ;  for  which 
treachery  the  vine  will  be  plucked  up  and  wither 
(9,  10).  The  explanation  of  the  parable  is  supplied 
in  verses  11-21.  The  first  eagle  represents  the  king 
of  Babylon,  who  came  to  Jerusalem  and  carried  into 
exile  King  Jehoiachin  (11,  12);  then  he  placed  upon 
the  throne  Zedekiah,  who  became  his  vassal  (13,  14); 
in  the  course  of  time  Zedekiah  rebelled  and  sought 
help  from  the  other  eagle,  the  king  of  Egypt  (15); 
for  this  treachery  king  and  people  must  suffer  (16-21). 
The  prophecy  closes  with  a  promise  of  a  brighter  day, 
when  Jehovah  will  plant  another  shoot  of  the  cedar, 
which  will  grow  into  a  large  tree  (22-24) — a  promise 
of  the  advent  of  the  ideal  ruler  of  David's  dynasty. 

Individual  Responsibility  before  God,  Chapter  18. 
In  chapter  i-S  Ezekiel.  discusses  the  .moral  freedom 
and  -reeponsibility.  of  the  individual,  man  .before..  God, 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  201 

a  doctrine  taught  by  Jeremiah,  but  treated  here  at 
greater  length.  The  prophet's  contemporaries  com- 
plained that  they  were  suffering  for  the  sins  of  their 
fathers  (i,  2).  Not  so,  replies  Ezekiel,  every  one  is 
rewarded  according  to  his  own  doings:  the  righteous 
man  lives,  the  unrighteous  man  dies;  the  fate  of  each 
is  altogether  independent  of  the  merits  or  demerits 
of  his  fathers  (3-20).  Similarly,  the  fate  of  a  man  is 
not  determined  by  his  own  previous  life:  the  wicked 
man  who  repents  will  live,  while  the  righteous  man 
who  turns  from  his  righteousness  must  die  (21-29); 
therefore  let  every  one  turn  to  Jehovah  and  live,  for 
he  has  no  pleasure  in  the  death  of  him  that  dies  (30-32). 

Dirge  over  the  Fall  of  Judah,  Chapter  19.  Chapter 
19  contains  a  dirge  over  the  fall  of  Judah  and  the 
two  princes,  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiachin,  under  the  two 
figures  of  a  lioness  and  her  whelps  (1-9),  and  a  vine 
and  its  branches  (10-14). 

Jehovah  must  Punish  Judah*s  Rebellion,  Chapter 
20.  Chapters  20-24  contain  further  oracles  concern- 
ing the  doom  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  As  on  another 
occasion  (14.  i),  the  elders  came  to  consult  Jehovah 
through  Ezekiel  (20.  i).  Jehovah  replies  that  he  will 
not  be  inquired  of  them  (2-4).  His  attitude  toward 
them  is  determined  by  their  attitude  toward  him. 
In  Egypt  (4-9),  in  the  wilderness  (10-26),  and  in  the 
promised  land  (27-32)  they  rebelled  against  him  and 
he  punished  them ;  in  the  same  manner  he  must  punish 
their  present  rebellion  and  idolatry  (33-39).  When 
the  punishment  has  accomplished  its  disciplinary  pur- 
pose they  will  be  received  back  into  the  divine  favor 
(40-44).  ...  .       .  ,    ^         ■ 

Chapter-  50,  45-49  .(Hebrew,  -21,   irr$)  contains  a 


202      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

prophecy  against  the  forests  of  the  south — a  fire  will 
devour  them.  The  verses  are  a  symbolic  repiesenta- 
tion  of  the  overthrow  of  Judah. 

Imminence  of  Jerusalem's  Destruction,  Chapter  21. 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is  announced  under 
the  figure  of  a  sharpened  sword,  which  Jehovah  wields 
against  the  city  (21.  1-17).  Then  follows  a  symbolic 
narrative,  setting  forth  the  imminent  ruin  of  Jerusalem. 
The  king  of  Babylon  is  represented  as  casting  lots  to 
find  out  whether  he  should  attack  Jerusalem  or  Rabbah, 
the  capital  of  Ammon.  The  lot  falls  upon  the  former 
on  account  of  her  sins  (18-27).  Ammon  too  will 
fall  before  the  invader  (28-32). 

Total  Depravity  of  Jerusalem,  Chapter  22.  The 
prophet  presents  a  new  indictment  against  Jeru- 
salem in  chapter  22.  The  city  is  totally  depraved, 
her  principal  crimes  being  bloodshed  and  idolatry 
(1-5),  but  there  are  many  other  sins  to  arouse  the 
resentment  of  Jehovah  (6-12).  There  is  no  escape 
from  the  terrors  of  judgment  (13-16).  With  the 
burning  heat  of  the  smelter's  furnace  the  fire  of  the 
divine  wrath  will  be  poured  upon  them  (17-22). 
Princes,  prophets,  priests,  and  people  are  equally 
corrupt  and  must  suffer  together  (23-31). 

Allegorical  Representation  of  the  History  of 
Judah  and  Israiel,  Chapter  23.  Chapter  23  is  a 
description  of  the  history  of  Israel  and  Judah  under 
the  figure  of  the  career  of  two  sisters,  Oholah  and 
Oholibah,  whom  Jehovah  married,  but  who  were 
faithless  to  him  and  ran  after  many  lovers  (1-5). 
Oholah,  that  is,  Israel,  committed  whoredom  with 
Assyria  and  Egypt  (6-8),  for  which  Jehovah  punished 
her  by  delivering  her  into  the  hands  of  Assyria  (9,  10). 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  203 

Oholibah,  that  is,  Jerusalem,  committed  whoredom 
with  Assyria  (11-13),  with  the  Chaldeans  (14-18), 
and  with  Egypt  (19-21);  therefore  she  must  share 
her  sister's  fate  t2  2-35).  The  chapter  closes  with  a 
new  description  of  the  immoralities  of  Oholah  and 
Oholibah,  followed  by  a  threat  of  judgment  (36-49). 

Last  Oracle  against  Jerusalem,  Chapter  24. 
Chapter  24  contains  Ezekiel's  last  oracle  against 
Jerusalem,  delivered  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  prophet's 
exile,  in  the  tenth  month,  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
month,  that  is,  near  the  beginning  of  the  final  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  in  January,  587  B.  C.  The  siege  and 
capture  are  described  in  the  form  of  a  parable.  A 
caldron  is  to  be  set  on  the  fire,  filled  with  water;  pieces 
of  flesh  are  to  be  cast  into  it,  and  fuel  is  to  be  piled 
under  it,  that  it  may  boil  furiously.  The  caldron 
represents  Jerusalem,  the  pieces  of  fiesh  the  inhabi- 
tants, the  fire  and  boiling  the  siege  with  its  terrors 
(1-5).  The  judgment  comes  as  a  punishment  for  sin, 
which  cleaves  like  rust  to  the  caldron  (6-8).  The 
threat  is  renewed  in  verses  9-14.  In  verses  15-27 
an  incident  in  Ezekiel's  family  life  is  made  the  vehicle 
of  a  message  to  the  exiles.  The  prophet's  wife  dies 
suddenly;  but  he  is  forbidden  to  give  open  expression 
to  his  grief,  as  a  sign  that  the  Jews  will  be  dumb 
with  anguish  when  they  hear  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

Prophecies  Concerning  Foreign  Nations,  Chapters 
25-32.  Chapters  25-32  contain  prophecies  concerning 
foreign  nations.  "The  insertion  of  these  oracles  in 
this  place  is  an  instance  of  the  constructive  skill 
which  planned  the  order  of  the  book.  They  fill  up 
the  interval  of  silence  which  separates  the  two  periods 
of  Ezekiel's  ministry.  ...  The  section,  moreover,  em- 


204      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

bodies  a  distinct  idea  in  the  prophet's  eschatological 
scheme.  The  motive  of  the  judgments  announced  is 
to  prepare  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  Israel,  by 
removing  the  evil  influences  which  had  sprung  from 
the  people's  contact  with  its  heathen  neighbors  in 
the  past  (28.  24-26;  29.  16)."  Seven  nations  are 
mentioned:  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia,  Tyre, 
Sidon,  and  Egypt.  Most  of  the  prophecies  are  brief; 
only  those  against  Egypt  and  Tyre  are  elaborated. 

Prophecies  against  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Phil- 
istia, Chapter  25.  Chapter  25  contains  prophecies 
against  four  peoples:  Ammon  will  be  overrun  because 
it  rejoiced  in  the  calamity  which  befell  the  people 
and  city  of  Jehovah  (1-7),  and  a  similar  fate  will 
befall  Moab  (8-1 1).  Jehovah  will  also  avenge  upon 
Edom  (12-14)  and  Philistia  (15-17)  the  wrongs  done 
to  his  people. 

Prophecies  Concerning  Tyre  and  Sidon,  Chapters 
26-28.  Chapters  26.  i — 28.  19  center  around  Tyre. 
Chapter  26  is  a  prophecy  of  Tyre's  destruction.  Tyre 
has  mocked  Jerusalem  in  her  calamity,  therefore  she 
too  will  be  broken  down  (1-6);  the  instrument,  .of  the 
divine  wrath  will  be-  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  armies 
(7-14);  the  news  of  her  fall  will  cause  consternation 
and  lamentation  everywhere  (15-18).  The  city  will 
surely  be  plunged  into  eternal  darkness,  her  place 
will  be  with  the  dead,  and  never  again  will  she  be 
seen  among  the  living  (19-21). 

Chapter  27  is  a  dirge  over  the  downfall,  of  Tyre, 
which  is  represented  as  a  ship  laden  with  manifold 
treasures,  but  steered  by  its  pilots  into  dangerous 
waters,  where  it  suffers  shipwreck.  The  prophet  first 
describes   -the    ship^    the    timbers,    furnishings,    and 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  205 

manning  (i-ii).  Many  nations  hasten  to  place  their 
wares  and  merchandise  on  the  ship  (12-25);  but  out 
on  the  high  sea  it  is  suddenly  wrecked  and  its  treasures 
lost  in  the  deep  (26,  27).  Consternation  will  spread 
everywhere,  and  men  will  bitterly  wail  over  the 
dreadful  calamity  (28-35). 

Chapter  28.  1-19  is  directed  against  the  king  of 
Tyre.  He  may  now  boast  in  his  riches,  power,  and 
wisdom,  but  he  will  be  helpless  in  the  day  when  the 
nations  advance  against  him  (i-io).  This  is  followed 
by  a  dirge  over  his  downfall  (11-19). 

Sidon,  another  powerful  city  of  Pha-nicia,  is  threat- 
ened with  an  invasion  and  siege  (20-23).  Afterward 
Israel,  restored  and  delivered  from  neighbors  who 
are  pricking  briers  and  thorns,  will  dwell  in  safety 
(24-26). 

Six  Oracles  against  Egypt,  Chapters  29-32.  Chap- 
ters 29-32  consist  of  a  group  of  six  oracles  against 
Egypt,  delivered,  with  one  exception  (29.  17-21), 
near  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Pharaoh,  the  proud  river 
dragon,  and  his  people  will  be  destroyed  or  scattered, 
because  they  have  defied  Jehovah  and,  after  seducing 
Judah  with  promises  of  support,  have  failed  to  stand 
by  her  (29.  1-12).  At  the  end  of  forty  years  Egypt 
will  be  restored  as  "the  basest  of  the  kingdoms" 
(13-16).  Verses  17-21  form  an  appendix  to  the  pre- 
ceding, added  sixteen  years  later:  Nebuchadnezzar 
will  be  compensated  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt  for  his 
unsuccessful  attack  upon  Tyre  (17-20).  After  the 
conquest  of  Egypt  Israel's  prosperity  will  revive  (21). 

Chapter  30  consists  of  two  prophecies  announcing 
the  speedy  overthrow  of  Egypt.  The  first  declares 
that  the  whole  land  will  be  overrun,   the  cities  de- 


2o6      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

stroyed,  the  king  overthrown,  and  the  people  carried 
into  exile  (1-19).  The  second  refers  to  a  recent 
defeat  of  Pharaoh  (20,  21)  and  predicts  additional 
disasters  (22-26). 

Chapter  31  pictures  the  fall  of  the  Pharaoh  under 
the  figure  of  the  cutting  down  of  a  great  cedar.  Chap- 
ter 32.  1-16  is  a  dirge  over  Egypt's  disgrace.  The 
Pharaoh,  representing  Egypt,  is  likened  to  a  crocodile 
dragged  from  its  accustomed  haunts  and  cast  upon 
the  dry  land;  its  giant  body  covers  the  mountains 
and  the  valleys,  and  the  blood  streaming  from  it 
stains  the  earth;  heaven  and  earth  stand  aghast  at 
the  sight.  The  rest  of  the  chapter  (17-32)  is  a  dirge 
over  the  Pharaoh  and  his  army,  who  descend  into 
Sheol  to  join  Assyria  and  other  oppressors  of   Israel, 

Prophecies  of  the  Restoration,  Chapters  33-48. 
With  chapter  t,t^  begin  the  prophecies  of  the  restora- 
tion, which  continue  to  the  end  of  the  book.  The 
report  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  filled  the  exiles  with 
despair.  They  thought  the  end  had  surely  come. 
Ezekiel  steps  forward  and  points  out  that  a  new  era 
is  about  to  dawn  and  a  new  Israel  is  about  to  arise. 
The  prophecies  of  restoration  deal  w4th  this  new  era 
and  the  new  Israel.  The  first  group  is  contained  in 
chapters  33-39,  which  describe  the  manner  in  which 
Jehovah  will  restore  his  people  to  the  promised  land. 

Responsibilities  of  the  Prophetic  Office,  Chapter 
33.  The  responsibilities  of  the  prophetic  office  are 
again  impressed  upon  Ezekiel  (t,;^.  1-9).  Then  he 
reaffirms  his  doctrine  of  individual  responsibility 
(compare  chapter  18) — the  penitent  sinner  will  be 
saved,  while  the  backsliding  saint  must  perish — to 
show  that  no  one  among  the  exiles  need  despair  of 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  io; 

the  divine  mercy,  if  only  he  will  truly  turn  to  Jehovah 
(10-20).  The  news  of  the  fall  of  the  holy  city  reaches 
the  prophet  (21,  22).  He  denounces  the  remnant 
left  behind  in  Judah  for  its  immoralities  (23-29),  and 
his  fellow  exiles,  because  they  do  not  act  according 
to  his  teaching  (30-33). 

Advent  of  the  Messianic  King,  Chapter  34.  Chap- 
ter 34  announces  the  advent  of  the  Messianic 
king.  The  former  rulers  of  Israel  have  been  evil 
shepherds  who  neglected  the  sheep  (1-4);  as  a  result 
the  people  suffered  affliction  and  violence  (5,  6). 
Therefore  the  evil  shepherds  will  be  removed  (7-10), 
and  Jehovah  himself  will  shepherd  the  flock  (11-22). 
As  his  representative  he  will  give  them  a  prince  of 
the  Davidic  dynasty,  under  whose  care  the  flock  will 
live  in  permanent  peace  and  prosperity  (23-31). 

Contrast  between  the  Destiny  of  Edom  and  that  of 
Israel,  Chapters  35,  36.  The  prophecy  in  chapter  35 
is  directed  against  Edom.  The  Edomites  were  hostile 
to  the  Israelites  throughout  almost  their  entire  history. 
At  the  time  of  Jerusalem's  fall  they  expressed  malicious 
joy  over  the  distress  of  the  Jews,  and  after  the  latter's 
deportation  to  Babylonia  some  of  them  took  pos- 
session of  part  of  the  territory  of  Judah.  For  these 
expressions  of  hostility  Edom  will  become  a  perpetual 
desolation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mountains  of 
Israel,  now  devastated  and  objects  of  reproach  and 
derision,  will  again  enjoy  the  blessing  of  Jehovah  and 
swarm  with  inhabitants  (36.  1-15);  one  of  the  best 
gifts  will  be  spiritual  regeneration  (25-27).  Jehovah 
will  restore  his  favor  not  for  Israel's  sake,  but  for 
his  own  sake,  that  the  nations  may  know  that  he  is 
God  (16-38). 


2o8      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Restoration  of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  the  Messianic 
Ruler,  Chapter  37.  Chapter  37.  1-14  portrays  the 
revival  of  the  people  from  the  death  of  exile  under 
the  figure  of  the  resurrection  of  an  army  of  dry  bones. 
Judah,  however,  will  not  be  restored  alone:  Israel 
will  have  a  share  in  the  blessings  of  the  future  (15-24). 
Over  both  the  ideal  King  David  will  rule  (24,  25), 
while  Jehovah  himself  will  set  up  his  sanctuary  in 
their  midst  (26-28). 

Jehovah's  Final  Triumph  over  the  Nations  of  the 
Earth,  Chapters  38,  39.  Jehovah's  final  triumph  over 
the  nations  of  the  earth  is  portrayed  in  38.  i — 39.  20. 
Gog,  of  the  land  of  Magog,  musters  his  armies  against 
Israel  (38.  1-13).  The  attack  is  in  accord  with  Jeho- 
vah's will,  in  order  that  he  may  sanctify  himself 
(14-16).  Though  ordered  by  Jehovah,  the  attack  of 
Gog  will  be  the  occasion  of  a  terrible  judgment  upon 
him  and  his  hosts,  in  which  they  will  be  completely 
annihilated  (38.  17 — 39.  20).  Then  all  the  nations 
will  know  that  Jehovah  is  God,  and  he  will  no  more 
hide  his  face  from  his  people  (21-29). 

The  Extent  and  Splendor  of  the  New  Sanctuary  of 
Jehovah,  Chapters  40-43.  In  chapters  33-39  Ezekiel 
expresses  the  conviction  that  the  exiles  will  be  re- 
stored to  their  former  home;  in  chapters  40-48  he 
sets  forth  the  constitution  upon  the  basis  of  which 
the  life  of  the  restored  community  is  to  be  organized. 

There  is  first  a  description  of  the  new  sanctuary 
where  Jehovah  will  dwell  in  visible  splendor  (chapters 
40-43)-  In  the  beginning  of  the  twenty-fifth  year  of 
his  exile,  that  is,  in  572,  Ezekiel  is  carried  in  a  vision 
to  Jerusalem,  where  he  sees  a  man  with  a  measuring 
line,  who  serves  as  his  interpreter  (40.  1-4).     He  gives 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  209 

to  the  prophet  a  description  of  the  outer  court  with 
its  gates  and  chambers  (5-27);  from  there  they  pass 
to  the  inner  court  with  its  gates  and  chambers  (28-47). 
Then  he  describes  the  temple  itself,  the  dimensions  of 
its  several  parts,  the  porch,  the  tabernacle,  the  side 
chambers,  the  main  building,  etc.,  and  its  decorations 
(40.  48 — 41.  26).  Afterward  the  two  return  to  the 
outer  court,  where  the  man  points  out  and  describes 
the  chambers  located  toward  the  north  and  toward 
the  south,  intended  for  the  use  of  the  priests  (42.  1-14) ; 
and  then  he  proceeds  to  measure  the  whole  group  of 
temple  buildings  (15-20),  The  new  sanctuary  of 
Jehovah  having  been  completed,  he  can  now  resume 
his  seat  there.  Nineteen  years  before  Ezekiel  saw 
the  glory  of  Jehovah  depart  from  the  temple;  now  he 
reenters  his  house  (43.  1-12).  In  the  remaining 
verses  are  given  the  measurements  of  the  altar  of 
burnt  offerings  (13-17)  and  instructions  concerning  the 
sacrifices  and  ceremonies  to  be  performed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the  temple  (18-27). 

Regulations  concerning  the  Administration  of  the 
New  Community,  Chapters  44-46.  The  next  section 
(chapters  44-46)  contains  various  regulations  concern- 
ing the  ministers  of  the  temple,  the  duties  and  revenues 
of  the  priests,  the  Levites,  and  the  prince;  also  con- 
cerning the  ritual  to  be  observed.  The  purpose  of 
all  these  regulations  was  to  keep  unimpaired  the 
sanctity  of  the  temple,  and  thus  to  retain  the  presence 
and  favor  of  Jehovah.  The  eastern  gate  is  to  remain 
shut,  because  through  it  Jehovah  entered  the  temple 
(44.  1-3).  All  foreigners  are  to  be  excluded  from  the 
temple  service  (4-9).  The  Levites  who  had  been 
priests  at  the  high  places  are  to  fill  the  inferior  offices 


2IO  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

(10-14),  and  the  priesthood  is  to  be  restricted  to  the 
sons  of  Zadok  (15,  16).  Various  rules  are  laid  down 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  priests,  concerning 
their  garments  (17-20),  the  drinking  of  wine  (21), 
marriage  (22),  their  duties  as  teachers  (23)  and  judges 
(24),  contact  with  dead  persons  (25-27),  and  their 
revenues  (28-31).  A  certain  portion  of  the  land  is 
to  be  set  apart  as  "an  oblation  unto  Jehovah"  (45. 
1-3),  to  be  used  for  the  maintenance  of  priests,  Levites, 
and  the  prince,  and  for  the  city  (4-8).  Fixed  dues 
are  to  be  paid  to  the  prince,  out  of  which  he  must 
provide  the  materials  for  the  temple  service  (13-17). 
Correct  measures  and  weights  must  be  used  in  deter- 
mining these  dues  (9-12).  Detailed  instruction  is 
given  concerning  various  kinds  of  sacrifices  and  offer- 
ings, the  offerings  at  the  feasts  (18-25),  ^t  the  Sabbaths 
and  the  new  moons  (46.  i-ii),  voluntary  offerings  of 
the  prince  (12),  and  the  daily  burnt  offering  (13-15). 
The  section  closes  with  two  appendixes,  the  first 
(16-18)  dealing  with  the  rights  of  the  prince  to  bestow 
gifts,  the  second  (19-24)  with  the  places  set  apart  in 
the  inner  and  outer  courts  for  the  cooking  of  offerings 
eaten  by  the  priests  and  the  people  respectively. 

Disposition  of  the  Tribes  in  the  Holy  Land,  Chap- 
ters 47,  48.  The  closing  chapters  (47,  48)  describe 
the  boundaries  of  the  holy  land  and  a  new  disposition 
of  the  tribes  in  it.  A  stream  issuing  from  beneath 
the  temple  will  fertilize  the  desert  parts  of  the  land 
and  sweeten  the  bitter  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  (47. 
1-12).  The  boundaries  of  the  holy  land  are  clearly 
defined  (13-20).  The  land  is  to  be  divided  by  lot 
among  the  tribes  of  Israel  and  certain  strangers 
(21-23).     The  territory  set  apart  for  Jehovah  is  to 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  211 

be  near  the  center;  north  of  it  are  seven  tribes:  Dan, 
Asher,  NaphtaH,  Manasseh,  Ephraim,  Reuben,  and 
Judah  (48.  1-7).  The  portion  of  Jehovah  is  divided 
among  the  priests,  the  Levites,  the  city,  and  the 
prince  (8-22).  The  five  tribes  of  Benjamin,  Simeon, 
Issachar,  Zebulon,  and  Gad  are  assigned  to  the  territory 
south  of  Jehovah's  portion  (23-29).  There  will  be 
twelve  gates  leading  out  of  the  city  (30-34),  whose 
name  from  that  day  shall  be,  "Jehovah  is  there"  (35). 

ACTIVITY  AND  TEACHING  OF  EZEKIEL 

Significance  of  Ezekiel.  The  Book  of  Ezekiel  is 
not  as  interesting  and  attractive  as  are  some  of  the 
other  prophetic  books,  nor  is  the  person  of  Ezekiel 
as  grand  and  majestic  as  are  some  of  the  other  prophets 
of  Israel.  Nevertheless,  Ezekiel  did  a  work  that  was 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  his  day  and  generation, 
and  whose  influence  continued  to  be  felt  throughout 
the  succeeding  centuries  of  Jewish  religious  history; 
and  his  book  is  by  no  means  without  lessons  of  per- 
manent value.  In  the  words  of  Kraetzschmar,  "If 
the  remnant  of  Israel  was  not  lost  among  the  heathen 
after  the  destructive  catastrophe  of  587-586,  but 
found  the  way  in  which  alone  its  future  lay,  this  is 
really  due  to  the  service  rendered  by  Ezekiel.  In  a 
wonderful  manner  he  suited  his  activity  to  the  changed 
conditions."  The  more  important  aspects  of  his  work 
are: 

I.  Denunciation  of  Judah*s  Sins  and  Announce- 
ment of  Doom.  From  the  time  of  his  call  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  he  devoted  his  energies 
almost  exclusively  to  combating  the  false  hopes  of 
deliverance  which  were  entertained  by  the  Jews  left 


212  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

behind  in  Judah  and  by  many  in  exile.  These  hopes 
were  encouraged  by  certain  false  prophets,  with  whom 
both  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  came  in  conflict.  As  is 
quite  natural,  during  this  period  his  message  was 
largely  one  of  denunciation  (chapters  1-24). 

2.  Repentance  the  Condition  of  Restoration.  The 
people  must  be  made  to  feel  that  they  have  offended 
a  holy  God,  and  that  they  must  bear  the  consequences 
of  their  sins.  Before  the  prophet  could  hold  out  any 
hope  of  a  return  of  the  divine  favor,  he  must  lead  the 
people  to  heartfelt  repentance,  to  self-examination, 
contrition  for  past  idolatries  and  sins,  and  an  earnest 
desire  henceforth  to  live  a  life  acceptable  in  the  sight 
of  a  holy  God.  Ezekiel,  like  Hosea,  was  firmly  con- 
vinced that  heartfelt  repentance  was  a  fundamental 
condition  of  the  restoration  of  the  divine  favor.  "Re- 
turn ye,  and  turn  yourselves  from  all  your  trans- 
gressions; so  iniquity  shall  not  be  your  ruin.  Cast 
away  from  you  all  your  transgressions,  wherein  ye 
have  transgressed;  and  make  you  a  new  heart  and  a 
new  spirit:  for  why  will  ye  die,  O  house  of  Israel? 
For  I  have  no  pleasure  in  the  death  of  him  that  dieth, 
saith  the  Lord  Jehovah:  wherefore  turn  yourselves, 
and  live"  (18.  30-32). 

3.  Promises  of  Restoration.  However,  Ezekiel  was 
not  exclusively  a  messenger  of  doom.  Denunciation 
might  lead  the  people  to  see  their  own  wretchedness 
and  fill  them  with  remorse  for  wrongdoing,  but  that 
in  itself  would  not  produce  a  change  of  life  and  char- 
acter. On  the  contrary,  it  might  lead  to  apathy  and 
despair.  That  many  actually  lost  heart  is  made  clear 
by  passages  like  these:  "Our  transgressions  and  our 
sins  are  upon  us,  and  we  pine  away  in  them;  how  then 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  213 

can  we  live?"  (;^;^.  10,)  and,  "Our  bones  are  dried 
up,  and  our  hope  is  lost;  we  are  clean  cut  off"  (37.  11). 
These  cries  show  that  the  consciences  of  the  speakers 
had  been  touched,  and  that  they  were  ready  for  a 
message  of  hope  and  encouragement.  Other  prophets 
had  foretold  a  restoration,  and  Ezekiel  sought  to 
sustain  the  despairing  exiles  with  the  promise  of  the 
ultimate  restoration  of  the  divine  favor  to  all  who 
would  truly  seek  Jehovah.  Even  in  the  first  division 
of  the  book,  which  contains  the  denunciations  of  the 
years  preceding  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  a  few  bright 
promises  may  be  found  (11.  i6ff. ;  16,  6off. ;  17.  22-24; 
20.  4off. ;  etc.) ;  however,  it  is  especially  in  the  utter- 
ances originating  in  the  years  subsequent  to  the 
catastrophe  of  586  that  Ezekiel  gives  expression  to 
his  sublimest  hopes. 

The  following  elements  enter  into  the  prophet's 
teaching  concerning  the  future  glory: 

(i)  Judgments  upon  the  Nations.  The  restoration 
of  the  exiles  is  to  be  preceded  by  judgments  upon  the 
nations  outside  of  Israel  (chapters  25-32,  38,  39). 
The  redeemed  and  restored  remnant  is  intended  to  be 
the  nucleus  of  the  new  kingdom  of  God  upon  earth, 
which  will  be  a  kingdom  of  peace  and  righteousness. 
In  the  past  the  surrounding  nations  had  harassed  the 
people  of  Jehovah;  the  only  way  to  prevent  their 
doing  so  in  the  future  was  to  destroy  them,  or  at 
least  to  fill  them  with  such  awe  that  they  would  lack 
courage  to  make  another  attack.  Besides,  in  the  past 
contact  with  foreign  nations  had  led  to  idolatry  and 
sin;  to  assure  permanent  purity  in  the  future,  this 
temptation  to  apostasy  must  be  removed.  These  two 
ends  are  to  be  accomplished  by  the  judgments  upon 


214  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  nations  announced  by  Ezekiel.  "These  judg- 
ments," says  Davidson,  "will  awaken  the  nations  to 
the  knowledge  who  the  God  of  Israel  is — they  shall 
know  that  he  is  Jehovah;  and  they  will  insure  that 
in  the  future  his  people  shall  not  be  troubled  or  led 
astray."  Skinner  calls  attention  to  the  other  purpose 
of  the  judgments  in  these  words:  "The  motive  of  the 
judgments  announced  is  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
restoration  of  Israel,  by  removing  the  evil  influences 
which  had  sprung  from  the  people's  contact  with  its 
heathen  neighbors  in  the  past  (28.  24-26;  29.  16)." 

(2)  Endowment  of  the  Land  with  Extraordinary 
Fertility.  The  land  of  Israel,  now  in  the  possession 
of  foreigners  (36.  2).  will  be  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  the  exiles,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  present  masters  (36.  3-7);  on  the  other,  by  its 
endowment  with  extraordinary  fertility:  "Ye  shall 
shoot  forth  your  branches,  and  yield  your  fruit  to 
my  people  Israel;  for  they  are  at  hand  to  come.  For, 
behold,  I  am  for  you,  and  I  will  turn  unto  you,  and 
ye  shall  be  tilled  and  sown"  (36.  8,  9,  29,  30,  34,  35). 

(3)  A  Spiritual  Regeneration.  The  exiles  will  be 
prepared  for  the  return  to  the  promised  land  by 
moral  and  spiritual  regeneration.  "I  will  sprinkle 
clean  water  upon  you,  and  ye  shall  be  clean:  from  all 
your  filthiness,  and  from  all  your  idols,  will  I  cleanse 
you.  A  new  heart  also  will  I  give  you,  and  a  new 
spirit  will  I  put  within  you;  and  I  will  take  away 
the  stony  heart  out  of  your  flesh,  and  I  will  give  you 
a  heart  of  flesh.  And  I  will  put  my  Spirit  within 
you,  and  cause  you  to  walk  in  my  statutes,  and  ye 
shall  keep  mine  ordinances,  and  do  them"  (36.  25-27). 

(4)  Restoration  of   the    Exiles.     The   preparation 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  215 

completed,  the  exiles  will  be  restored  to  the  promised 
land,  there  to  live  forever  in  prosperity  and  in  the 
fear  of  Jehovah  (37.  1-14;  compare  36.  8ff.).  The 
restoration  of  the  exiles  is  likened  to  a  resurrection 
from  the  dead:  "Behold,  I  will  open  your  graves,  and 
cause  you  to  come  up  out  of  your  graves,  O  my  people ; 
and  I  will  bring  you  into  the  land  of  Israel"  (37.  12). 
Then  the  mountains  of  Israel  will  swarm  with  people, 
the  cities  will  be  inhabited,  and  the  waste  places  will 
be  rebuilt  (36.  10).  The  northern  kingdom  will  have 
a  share  in  the  blessings  of  the  restoration,  and  north 
and  south  will  be  reunited  (37.  isff.)- 

(5)  The  Messianic  Ruler.  In  the  past  the  people 
of  Jehovah  had  suffered  much  from  faithless  and 
incompetent  shepherds,  and  the  present  distress  was 
due  very  largely  to  their  neglectfulness  (34.  16).  In 
the  new  era  all  this  will  be  changed,  for  Jehovah  him- 
self will  be  the  shepherd  of  his  flock  and  supply  all 
its  needs  (34.  11-22).  As  his  earthly  representative 
he  will  appoint  over  the  united  Israel  and  Judah  a 
descendant  of  David:  "I  will  set  up  one  shepherd  over 
them,  and  he  shall  feed  them,  even  my  servant  David; 
he  shall  feed  them,  and  he  shall  be  their  shepherd. 
And  I,  Jehovah,  will  be  their  God,  and  my  servant 
David  prince  among  them;  I,  Jehovah,  have  spoken 

it"    (34.    23,    24;   37.    22ff.). 

(6)  Return  of  Jehovah  to  the  Regenerated  People. 

The  regenerated  and  restored  nation  will  live  in  close 
fellowship  with  Jehovah  forever.  The  sins  of  Jeru- 
salem compelled  him  to  leave  the  temple  and  the 
city,  and  give  them  up  to  destruction  (chapters  10,  11) ; 
but  in  the  age  of  restoration  the  sanctuary  will  be 
rebuilt,  Jehovah  will  reenter  it  and  establish  an  eternal 


2i6      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

covenant  of  peace  with  his  people.  "Moreover  I 
will  make  a  covenant  of  peace  with  them;  it  shall  be 
an  everlasting  covenant  with  them;  and  I  will  place 
them,  and  multiply  them,  and  will  set  my  sanctuary 
in  the  midst  of  them  for  evermore.  My  tabernacle 
also  shall  be  with  them,  and  I  will  be  their  God,  and 
they  shall  be  my  people"  (37.  26,  27  ;  compare  43.  1-12). 
4.  The  Organization  of  the  Restored  Community. 
Ezekiel  was  not  content  with  predicting  the  restora- 
tion and  the  changes  accompanying  it;  he  put  his 
convictions  and  ideals  into  concrete  form  in  chapters 
40-48.  The  prophet  must  have  seen  that  the  efforts 
of  the  earlier  prophets  had  proved  more  or  less  of  a 
failure;  they  had  been  unable  to  avert  the  destruction 
of  the  nation,  and  their  teaching  had  not  brought 
about  the  moral  and  spiritual  transformation  upon 
which  they  insisted.  Ezekiel  saw  the  cause  of  the 
failure  in  the  inability  of  the  common  people  to  grasp 
the  abstract  teaching  of  the  prophets  and  apply  it  to 
the  daily  life.  He  sought  to  remove  the  difficulty 
and  secure  purity  and  righteousness  in  the  life  of 
the  individual  and  of  the  whole  community  by  mapping 
out  a  scheme  for  the  establishment  of  a  theocracy 
in  the  promised  land.  "The  unique  significance  of 
that  remarkable  creation  lies  in  the  fact  that  under 
the  form  of  a  Messianic  prophecy  it  presents  the 
scheme  of  a  politico-religious  constitution,  in  which 
the  fundamental  idea  of  holiness  is  applied  to  the 
regulation  of  every  part  of  the  national  life.  It  is 
a  picture  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  its  final  and  per- 
fect state  as  this  prophet  was  led  to  conceive  it." 
The  underlying  idea  was  the  holiness  of  Jehovah  and 
the  conviction  that  only  as  this  holiness  was  reflected 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  217 

in  the  life  of  the  people  was  real  and  permanent  fellow- 
ship between  Jehovah  and  Israel  possible. 
Fundamental  Ideas  Underlying  Ezekiel's  Teaching. 

It  remains  now  to  point  out  some  of  the  fundamental 
ideas  underlying  Ezekiel's  teaching.  We  have  already 
seen  that  many  of  the  truths  proclaimed  by  him  are 
identical  with  those  taught  by  the  earlier  prophets, 
but  there  are  some  truths,  or  aspects  of  truths,  that 
are  peculiar  to  him,  or  receive  special  emphasis  from 
him. 

(i)  The  Glory  of  Jehovah.  Of  primary  interest 
and  importance  is  Ezekiel's  conception  of  the  nature 
and  character  of  Jehovah.  Fundamental  in  his 
thought  of  Jehovah  is  what  he  calls  the  glory  of  Jeho- 
vah. The  idea  expressed  in  this  phrase  is  similar  to 
that  suggested  by  the  song  of  the  seraphim  in  Isaiah's 
vision,  "The  whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory";  that  is, 
evidences  of  the  glorious  manifestations  of  Jehovah  in 
nature  and  history  may  be  seen  on  every  hand.  The 
glory  of  Jehovah  is  described  especially  in  the  visions 
recorded  in  chapters  i,  10,  43.  In  all  these  passages 
the  phrase  suggests  the  glorious  majesty  and  power, 
the  universal  supremacy  of  the  God  of  Israel,  which 
he  desires  to  manifest  continually  in  his  dealings 
with  men.  The  divine  glory  was  so  overpowering 
that  at  the  sight  of  it  the  prophet  fell  upon  his  face 
(i.  28;  3.  23),  and  this  he  considers  the  proper  atti- 
tude in  the  presence  of  Jehovah. 

(2)  The  Name  of  Jehovah.  Similar  in  meaning  is 
the  phrase  "the  name  of  Jehovah."  The  glory  of 
Jehovah  denotes  the  glorious  manifestations  of  Jeho- 
vah in  nature  and  especially  in  history;  the  name  of 
Jehovah  is  that  side  of  his  nature  that  can  be  revealed 


2i8      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

to  man,  or  the  sum  of  his  attributes  as  he  has  revealed 
them.  All  the  dealings  of  Jehovah  with  Israel,  says 
Ezekiel,  are  for  his  name's  sake;  that  is,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  revealing  his  true  nature  and  character.  The 
Israelites  rebelled  against  Jehovah  in  Egypt;  never- 
theless, for  his  name's  sake  he  was  merciful  and  brought 
them  out  of  the  land  of  bondage  (20.  8,  9;  compare 
verses  14,  22).  Had  he  given  them  up  to  destruction, 
his  name  would  have  been  profaned  among  the  na- 
tions; for  to  them  any  disaster  that  befell  his  people 
would  have  been  an  indication  of  his  weakness  and 
inability  to  protect  them,  and  this  misconception 
might  have  caused  them  to  mock  him.  To  prevent 
this  he  delivered  Israel,  though  it  deserved  otherwise. 
In  the  same  manner,  the  restoration  in  the  future  is 
not  due  to  any  merit  on  the  part  of  the  exiles,  but 
again  to  the  desire  of  Jehovah  to  make  himself  known 
in  his  true  nature  and  character  to  Israel  and  to  the 
nations  (36,  22,  23). 

(3)  The  Holiness  of  Jehovah.  In  several  passages 
Ezekiel  states  that  by  a  certain  act  Jehovah  will 
"sanctify  himself"  or  "show  himself  holy."  With 
Ezekiel,  as  with  Isaiah,  the  holiness  of  Jehovah  de- 
notes not  so  much  a  particular  attribute  as  his  whole 
essential  Godhead,  though  the  prophet  never  loses 
sight  of  the  moral  aspect  of  the  divine  holiness.  "Holy 
as  applied  to  Jehovah  is  an  expression  that  in  some 
way  describes  him  as  God,  either  generally  or  on  any 
particular  side  of  his  nature,  the  manifestation  or 
thought  of  which  impresses  men  with  the  sense  of  his 
Godhead."  It  is  seen,  then,  that  the  statement  that 
Jehovah  will  show  himself  holy  or  sanctify  himself 
means  simply  that  he  will  show  himself  to  be  the 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  219 

only  true  God.  The  actions  of  his  people  and  his 
dealings  with  them  in  the  past  may  have  left  some 
doubts  on  this  point  in  the  minds  of  the  nations,  but 
his  future  treatment  of  Israel  and  of  the  nations  will 
open  the  latter's  eyes  and  convince  them  that  he 
alone  is  God  (20.  41;  28.  22,  25;  36.  23;  38.  16,  23). 

Moral  Freedom  and  Individual  Responsibility. 
Ezekiel  emphasizes  and  expands  the  doctrine  of  the 
freedom  and  responsibility  of  the  individual  soul  be- 
fore God,  which  was  first  taught  by  Jeremiah.  There 
were,  as  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  those  who  com- 
plained that  they  were  suffering  for  the  sins  of  their 
fathers  (18.  2,  19).  This  is  not  true,  says  Ezekiel: 
"The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die:  the  son  shall  not 
bear  the  iniquity  of  the  father,  neither  shall  the  father 
bear  the  iniquity  of  the  son;  the  righteousness  of  the 
righteous  shall  be  upon  him,  and  the  wickedness  of 
the  wicked  shall  be  upon  him"  (18.  20).  The  prophet 
makes  it  equally  clear  that  a  person  does  not  lie  under 
the  ban  of  his  own  previous  life  (18.  21-32).  His 
moral  freedom  raises  him  above  both  these  influences. 
This  truth,  that  religion  was  an  individual  affair,  that 
it  depended  upon  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  his 
God,  was  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  days  of 
Ezekiel,  when  many  felt  that  the  destruction  of  the 
holy  city  and  the  temple  involved  the  loss  of  true 
religion. 

Israel's  Sinfulness  at  the  Beginning  of  its  History. 
Ezekiel  differs  from  the  earlier  prophets  in  his  view 
of  Israel's  history.  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah 
taught  that  Israel  was  pure  in  the  beginning;  only 
after  the  exodus  from  Egypt  did  the  nation  apostatize 
from  Jehovah.     Ezekiel,  on  the  other  hand,   traces 


220      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  rebellion  of  Israel  back  to  Egypt  (20.  8;  23.  3). 
Even  then  the  people  deserved  the  divine  wrath,  and 
Jehovah  brought  them  out  of  bondage  only  in  order 
that  his  name  might  not  be  profaned  among  the 
nations  (20.  9). 

Ezekiel's  Estimate  of  the  Externals  of  Religion. 
Perhaps  in  nothing  is  the  contrast  between  Ezekiel 
and  the  earlier  prophets  more  clearly  marked  than  in 
his  attitude  toward  the  ritual.  All  the  preexilic 
prophets  insist  that  the  ritual  is  not  an  essential 
element  of  true  religion  (Amos  5.  21-25;  Hos.  6.  6; 
Isa.  I.  11-15;  Mic.  6.  6-8;  Jer.  3.  16,  17).  Ezekiel, 
on  the  other  hand,  devotes  considerable  space  to  a 
detailed  program,  describing  the  ecclesiastical  organi- 
zation of  the  community  after  the  return  from  exile; 
and  in  these  provisions  much  stress  is  laid  upon  many 
things  that  earlier  prophets  considered  of  little  or  no 
consequence.  This  emphasis  of  the  externals  of 
religion  has  led  to  the  charge  that  Ezekiel  "trans- 
formed the  ideals  of  the  prophets  into  laws  and  dogmas, 
and  destroyed  spiritually  free  and  moral  religion." 
This  sweeping  charge  is  not  warranted.  In  the  first 
place,  Ezekiel  had  every  reason  for  believing  that  his 
age  required  the  expression  of  religious  ideals  in 
external,  concrete  forms.  The  great  mass  of  people 
needed  the  temple,  the  sacrificial  system,  and  other 
institutions  as  means  of  communion  with  God;  and  it 
is  exceedingly  doubtful  if  the  religion  of  Jehovah 
could  have  survived  without  them.  That  later  genera- 
tions exaggerated  the  importance  of  externals  until 
finally  the  spirit  was  altogether  lost  sight  of  was  not 
the  fault  of  Ezekiel.  In  the  second  place,  the  ritual 
does  by  no  means  exhaust  the  religious  interests  of 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL  221 

the  prophet.  Again  and  again  he  insists  that  a  pure 
and  righteous  life  is  an  essential  part  of  true  religion 
(chapters  3,  18,  t,^).  Besides,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  provisions  in  chapters  40-48  are  in- 
tended for  a  regenerated  people;  they  are  meant  to 
aid  a  regenerated  community  to  give  proper  expression 
to  its  devotion  to  Jehovah.  "In  interpreting  the  mind 
of  the  man  who  sketched  this  priestly  legislation  it  is 
unfair  to  ignore  those  profound  and  noble  utterances 
touching  the  necessity  of  the  new  heart  (18.  31 ;  36.  26) 
and  the  new  spirit  (11.  19),  utterances  which  have  the 
ring  of  some  of  the  greatest  words  of  Jeremiah." 


CHAPTER  X 
ISAIAH,  Chapters  Forty  to  Sixty-six 

CONDITIONS  IN  BABYLONIA  FROM  THE  CLOSE  OF  EZEKIEL'S 
ACTIVITY  TO  THE  CAPTURE  OF  BABYLON  BY  CYRUS 

Successors  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  great  Nebu- 
chadnezzar continued  to  reign  until  562.  During  his 
lifetime  the  splendor  of  Babylon  endured,  but  after 
his  death  the  empire  which  he  had  built  up  quickly 
went  to  pieces.  His  son  Amel-Marduk,  the  biblical 
Evil-merodach  (2  Kings  25.  27),  was  slain  at  the  end 
of  two  years  at  the  instigation  of  the  priesthood,  and 
his  brother-in-law,  Nergal-shar-usur,  was  made  king. 
After  a  reign  of  about  three  years  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Labashi-Marduk,  who,  however,  was  almost 
immediately  assassinated.  Nabonidus,  a  native  Baby- 
lonian, and  hence,  perhaps,  the  leader  of  a  reaction 
against  the  Chaldeans,  who  had  furnished  the  kings 
since  the  days  of  Nabopolassar,  became  the  last  king 
of  Babylon  about  555.  He  stood  under  the  influence 
of  the  priesthood,  and  spent  much  time  in  rebuilding 
and  beautifying  temples.  These  enterprises,  though 
commendable  in  themselves,  did  nothing  for  the 
defense  of  the  empire  and  caused  him  to  lose  the 
favor  of  the  military  party,  and  in  the  end  even  the 
priests  turned  against  him. 

Attitude  of  the  Scythians.  The  Scythians,  with 
singular  fideHty,  kept  their  treaty  with  Babylon  as 
long  as  the  dynasty  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  on  the 
throne,  but  when  it  was  overthrown  they  felt  them- 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  223 

selves  absolved  from  their  obligations  and  began  to 
extend  their  borders  beyond  the  old  treaty  limits, 
established  after  the  fall  of  Nineveh.  They  entered 
Mesopotamia,  where  they  occupied  the  city  of  Haran, 
and  Babylonia  would  have  fallen  before  them  had  there 
not  appeared  a  new  conqueror  upon  the  scene. 

Conquests  of  Cyrus.  Cyrus,  king  of  Anshan,  was 
his  name.  Anshan  was  a  small  district  in  Elam,  but 
when  Cyrus  once  entered  upon  his  w^ars  of  conquest 
nothing  seemed  able  to  stop  him.  The  powerful 
Scythians,  the  Medes,  Persia,  and  Croesus,  the  famed 
king  of  Lydia,  were  subdued  in  rapid  succession. 
Finally,  in  538,  the  main  body  of  the  army  of  Cyrus, 
under  the  leadership  of  his  general  Ugbaru,  advanced 
against  Babylon.  The  city  surrendered  without  a 
struggle,  and  Nabonidus  was  taken  prisoner.  In 
October  of  the  same  year  Cyrus  himself  entered  the 
city,  where  he  was  welcomed  as  a  deliverer.  The 
proud  empire  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  at  an  end. 

DATE  OF  ISAIAH  40-66 

Historical  Background  of  Isa.  40-66.  It  is  uni- 
versally admitted  that  Isa.  4off.  reflect  the  conditions 
of  the  Babylonian  exile:  (i)  Jerusalem  and  the  temple 
are  in  ruins  (44.  26,  28).  (2)  The  time  of  punishment 
is  almost  over  (40.  2)  and  the  time  of  redemption  is 
at  hand  (40.  gff. ;  46.  13).  (3)  Babylon  is  named  as 
the  oppressor,  and  it  is  stated  that  her  dominion 
will  soon  cease  (43.  14;  46.  iff.).  (4)  Cyrus  is  named 
as  the  executioner  of  judgment  upon  Babylon  and 
the  dehverer  of  the  exiles  (44.  28;  45.  i),  and  he  is 
represented  as  having  already  achieved  some  of  his 
victories  (41.  2,  25;  45.  1-3).  (5)  Appeal  is  made 
to   ancient   prophecies   predicting   the   events   taking 


224      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

place  in  the  author's  days  (41.  26;  42.  9;  44.  8;  45. 
21;  etc.).  These  prophecies,  which  have  to  do  chiefly 
with  the  restoration  from  exile,  were  delivered  by  the 
preexilic  prophets. 

Date  of  the  Chapters.  But  while  it  is  universally 
admitted  that  "these  chapters  are  unquestionably 
written  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Babylonian  exile," 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the 
author  actually  lived  at  that  time  and  wrote  out  of 
his  own  historical  environment,  or  whether  Isaiah, 
the  son  of  Amoz,  to  whom  the  prophecies  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  book  are  assigned,  was  transported 
by  the  spirit  to  the  period  of  the  exile,  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  from  his  own  day,  and  ad- 
dressed the  utterances  to  the  exiles  w^hom  he  saw  be- 
fore him  not  in  reality,  but  only  in  the  spirit.  The 
majority  of  modem  scholars  hold  that  the  author 
lived  among  the  exiles,  and  so,  that  he  was  not  the 
eighth  century  Isaiah.  "It  was  the  office  of  the  prophet 
of  Israel  to  address  himself  to  the  needs  of  his  own 
age,  to  announce  to  his  contemporaries  the  judg- 
ments or  consolations  which  arose  out  of  the  circum- 
stances of  their  own  time,  to  interpret  for  them  their 
own  history.  To  base  a  promise  upon  a  condition  of 
things  not  yet  existent,  and  without  any  point  of 
contact  with  the  circumstances  or  situation  of  those 
to  whom  it  is  addressed,  is  alien  to  the  genius  of 
prophecy." 

To  be  Interpreted  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Exile. 
The  determination  of  the  authorship  of  the  chapters 
is  of  interest  and  importance,  but  after  all  is  of  little 
consequence  for  our  study,  since  all  are  agreed  that 
the  utterances  reflect  the  exile  and  that,   therefore, 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  225 

they  must  be  interpreted  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
exile.  The  prophecy  opens  at  some  date  between 
549  and  538.  The  conquest  of  Babylon  is  still  in  the 
future;  on  the  other  hand,  Cyrus  is  represented  as 
already  upon  the  scene  of  action,  about  to  strike 
a  blow  against  Babylon.  It  seems,  therefore,  that 
the  standpoint  of  the  author,  whoever  he  may  be, 
is  that  of  about  545  B.  C.  This  is  certainly  true  of 
the  earlier  chapters  of  the  section.  There  are  those, 
however,  who  believe  that  the  section  contains  some 
utterances  that  come  from  a  much  later  period. 

CONTENTS  OF  ISAIAH  40-66 

The    Restoration    of    the    Exiles,    Chapters  40-48. 

It  has  become  customary  to  divide  the  chapters  into 
three  nearly  equal  sections,  chapters  40-48,  49-55, 
56-66.  The  theme  of  the  first  division  (chapters  40-48) 
is  the  deliverance  and  restoration  of  the  exiles  through 
the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus.  To  give  emphasis  to 
his  promises  the  prophet  calls  attention  again  and 
again  to  the  mighty  power  of  Jehovah,  which  enables 
him  to  carry  out  his  purpose  in  the  face  of  all  obstacles. 
The  Restoration  of  the  Exiles  is  at  Hand,  40. 
i-ii.  Chapter  40.  i-ii,  a  passage  of  great  beauty, 
may  be  considered  the  prologue,  in  which  the  prophet 
sets  forth  the  theme  of  the  entire  section.  The  time 
of  Israel's  punishment  is  almost  over,  and  the  time 
of  redemption  is  at  hand;  therefore  a  message  of 
comfort  and  hope  is  in  order  (i,  2).  Already  the 
prophet  hears  a  voice  summoning  unseen  agencies 
to  prepare  a  way  for  Jehovah  in  the  desert  (3-5). 
Another  voice  commands  the  prophet  to  proclaim  the 
ground  of  his  conviction  that  deliverance  is  at  hand: 


2  26      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

"The  word  of  our  God  shall  stand  forever"  (6-8). 
Prompted  by  his  conviction,  the  prophet  calls  upon 
messengers  to  announce  to  Judah  and  Jerusalem  that 
Jehovah  is  about  to  bring  back  the  redeemed  people 

(9-1 1). 

The  Incomparable  Greatness  of  Jehovah,  40. 
12-31.  The  announcement  may  be  startling,  but 
the  exiles  must  remember  who  makes  the  promise, 
Jehovah,  the  creator  and  ruler  of  heaven  and  earth. 
In  the  rest  of  chapter  40  the  prophet  enforces  his 
message  of  comfort  by  picturing  the  incomparable 
greatness  of  Jehovah;  no  finite  mind  can  comprehend 
him,  no  human  conception  can  express  him,  therefore 
idolatry  is  absurd  (12-26).  Whoever  relies  upon 
Jehovah,  whose  manifestations  may  be  observed  in 
nature  and  history,  shall  not  be  disappointed  (27-31). 

Cjnnis,  the  Instrument  of  Jehovah,  to  Free  Israel, 
Chapter  41.  The  signs  of  the  times  point  to  an  ap- 
proaching deliverance,  Jehovah  propounds  to  an 
assembly  of  the  nations  the  question,  Who  has  raised 
up  the  great  conqueror  from  the  east?  (41.  i-4a.) 
This  conqueror  is  Cyrus,  who  has  already  entered 
upon  his  career  of  triumph.  It  is  no  one  but  Jehovah, 
who  has  chosen  Cyrus  to  carry  out  his  purpose  (4b-7). 
The  nations  may  well  tremble;  but  in  the  midst  of 
the  convulsions  Israel,  the  chosen  servant,  has  nothing 
to  fear.  Jehovah  is  doing  all  this  that  his  servant 
may  be  delivered  and  fulfill  his  divinely  appointed 
mission  (8-20).  Verse  21  is  the  continuation  of  verse 
7.  Jehovah,  not  the  heathen  idols,  has  raised  up 
Cyrus,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  alone  foresaw 
and  predicted  the  event  (21-29). 

Jehovah's  Continued  Care  for  Israel  His  Servant, 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  227 

42.  I — 43.  7.  Israel  is  the  chosen  servant  of 
Jehovah  who  is  to  teach  true  religion  to  the  world 
(1-4),  and  Jehovah  promises  that  he  will  aid  him  in 
the  carrying  out  of  this  mission  (5-9).  Assured  of 
Jehovah's  speedy  triumph  the  prophet  breaks  into  a 
song  of  thanksgiving,  in  which  he  calls  upon  the 
whole  earth  to  rejoice  (10-12),  because  Jehovah  is 
about  to  redeem  his  people  (13-17).  Though  Israel 
has  a  lofty  mission,  in  the  past  it  has  failed  to  re- 
spond to  the  divine  leadings;  therefore  the  fierceness 
of  the  divine  wrath  has  been  poured  upon  it  (18-25); 
but  the  time  of  punishment  is  past,  and  Jehovah  is 
about  to  restore  his  people  (43.  1-7). 

Israel's    Glorious    Restoration    an   Act    of    Mercy, 

43.  8 — 44.  5.  The  words  of  Jehovah  are  worthy  of 
attention,  for  the  fulfillment,  in  the  present  history 
of  Israel,  of  earlier  prophetic  utterances  proves  him 
to  be  the  only  true  God  (43.  8-13).  Israel  is  about 
to  be  delivered  from  Babylon,  and  the  new  deliverance 
will  be  more  wonderful  than  the  ancient  deliverance 
from  Egypt  (14-21).  This  is  not  due  to  any  merit 
on  Israel's  part,  for  it  has  grievously  sinned  against 
Jehovah  (22-24),  but  is  an  act  of  free  grace  (25-28). 
In  the  new  era  of  splendor  other  nations  will  be  anxious 
to  join  themselves  to  his  people  (44.  1-5). 

Jehovah,  who  alone  is  God,  will  Surely  Fulfill 
his  Promises,  44.  6 — 45.  25.  In  44.  6-8  the  argument 
from  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy  is  appealed  to  once 
more,  to  prove  that  Jehovah  alone  is  God.  Then 
the  prophet  exposes  with  much  sarcasm  the  folly  of 
idolatry  (9-20).  He  exhorts  Israel  to  remember  that 
Jehovah  is  its  redeemer  (21-23)  5  i^  is  he  who  has  com- 
missioned Cyrus  to  deliver  the  exiles  and  to  rebuild 


228  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Jerusalem  and  the  temple  (44.  24—45.  8).  Those 
exiles  who  murmur  because  Jehovah  has  chosen  a 
foreigner  to  be  his  anointed  are  reminded  that  Jehovah 
is  supreme  and  can  choose  whom  he  will  (9-13).  The 
ultimate  object  of  the  call  of  Cyrus  is  to  bring,  through 
the  redemption  of  the  exiles,  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
God  to  other  nations  (14-1 7).  The  promises  of  Jehovah 
will  surely  be  fulfilled  (18-25). 

The  Impending  Doom  of  Babylon,  Chapters 
46,  47.  The  impotence  of  the  Babylonian  gods 
(46.  I,  2)  is  contrasted  with  the  mighty  power 
of  Jehovah  (3-7).  Let  Israel  remember  what  he  has 
done  in  the  past  and  trust  him  for  the  future  (8-12). 
Chapter  47  contains  a  taunt-song  over  the  doomed 
city.  Jehovah  will  depose  Babylon  from  her  position 
of  luxury  and  ease  (1-4).  She  will  be  displaced  as 
the  mistress  of  the  kingdoms,  because  she  has  shown 
no  mercy  to  Israel  (5-7).  Her  self-confidence  will 
avail  nothing,  for  suddenly  destruction  will  come  upon 
her  (8-1 1).  Her  sorceries  and  other  resources  will 
utterly  fail  in  the  day  of  calamity  (12-15). 

Jehovah's  Manifestations  in  Israel's  Past  History 
a  Guarantee  of  Speedy  Restoration,  Chapter  48. 
Chapter  48  is  addressed  to  the  exiles.  If  they  would 
look  over  their  past — especially,  if  they  would  study 
past  predictions  and  their  fulfillment — they  would  see 
the  divine  hand  in  the  events  of  their  history  (i-ii). 
The  imminent  fall  of  Babylon,  which  will  result  in 
the  release  of  the  exiles,  is  the  supreme  evidence  of 
Jehovah's  interest  in  his  people  (12-16).  Jehovah 
bewails  the  past  stubbornness  of  Israel  (17-19),  but 
the  time  of  deliverance  is  at  hand,  therefore  let  the 
exiles  flee  from  the  land  of  bondage  (20-22). 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  229 

The  Mission  of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  and  the 
Glorification  of  Zion,  Chapters  49-55.  The  second 
section  (chapters  49-55)  deals  with  the  mission  of  the 
servant  of  Jehovah  and  the  glorification  of  Zion. 
Several  lines  of  thought,  prominent  in  chapters  40-48, 
here  disappear,  probably  because  the  prophet  feels 
that  they  have  been  developed  at  sufficient  length 
and  that  he  has  established  his  case  beyond  con- 
troversy. Among  the  omitted  features  are  the  ref- 
erences to  Cyrus,  the  predictions  of  the  fall  of  Babylon, 
the  appeal  to  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy,  the  con- 
demnation of  idolatry,  and  the  arguments  to  prove  the 
sole  deity  of  Jehovah.  The  prophet  is  concerned  more 
with  the  moral  and  spiritual  preparation  of  the  exiles 
for  the  restoration  and  with  the  future  exaltation  of 
the  redeemed  remnant.  The  figure  of  the  servant 
of  Jehovah  occupies  a  prominent  place. 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah  and  Jehovah's  Readiness 
to  Aid  Him,  49.  i — 50.  3.  In  49.  i  the  servant  of 
Jehovah  is  introduced.  He  describes  the  mission 
intrusted  to  him  by  Jehovah  and  the  discouraging 
experiences  of  the  past  (1-4).  His  task  is  great,  for 
both  Jews  and  Gentiles  are  to  be  saved  through  him 
(5-13).  The  complaint  of  the  despondent  exiles,  that 
Jehovah  has  forsaken  them,  is  unwarranted;  he  is 
still  interested  in  them  and  will  surely  restore  them 
(14-26).  Their  present  distress  is  due  not  to  his 
lack  of  interest  but  to  their  sins;  however,  he  will 
soon  manifest  his  power  in  their  behalf  (50.  1-3). 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah — his  present  Distress 
and  Imminent  Deliverance,  50.  4 — 52.  12.  In  50. 
4-9  the  servant  speaks  again,  describing  the  manner 
in  which  he  does  the  work  assigned  to-  him  and  the 


230      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

difficulties  he  must  overcome;  nevertheless,  he  is  con- 
fident that  Jehovah  will  help  him.  The  prophet 
exhorts  his  contemporaries  to  imitate  the  faith  of  the 
servant  (lo),  and  warns  the  ungodly  that  their  evil 
schemes  will  result  in  their  own  undoing  (ii). 

Jehovah  has  called  Israel  to  be  his  servant,  hence 
he  cannot  forsake  him.  The  glorious  salvation  is 
near  (51.  1-8);  the  deliverances  of  the  past  are  a 
guarantee  that  Jehovah  will  keep  his  promise  now 
(9-1 1);  let  Israel  but  trust  in  Jehovah  and  not  be 
afraid  of  man  (12-16).  The  present  distress  of  Jeru- 
salem is  great ;  she  has  drunk  deep  of  the  cup  of  Jeho- 
vah's wrath  (17-20),  but  he  is  about  to  take  it  from 
her  and  place  it  in  the  hands  of  her  oppressors  (21-23). 
Therefore  let  Zion  lay  aside  her  soiled  raiment  and 
put  on  festal  garments  (52.  i,  2),  for  Jehovah  will 
restore  his  people,  in  order  to  save  his  name  from 
blasphemy  (3-6).  Already  the  speaker  beholds  upon 
the  mountains  of  Judah  the  messengers  who  bear  the 
glad  tidings  of  Israel's  deliverance,  and  he  hears  the 
watchmen  announcing  the  good  news  (7-10) ;  there- 
fore once  more  he  summons  the  exiles  to  depart  from 
the  land  of  their  captivity  (11,  12). 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah — his  Exaltation  after  a 
Period  of  Deepest  Humiliation,  52.  13 — 53.  12.  The 
subject  of  52.  13 — 53.  12  is  again  the  servant  of 
Jehovah,  whose  exaltation  after  a  period  of  deep- 
est humiliation  is  portrayed.  The  servant,  whose 
extreme  sufferings  have  caused  astonishment,  is 
to  be  highly  exalted,  so  that  nations  tremble  and 
kings  are  put  to  shame  (52.  13-15).  Earher  state- 
ments concerning  the  servant  were  not  believed;  he 
was  despised  and  rejected    (53.    1-3).     At  last   the 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  231 

speakers'  eyes  were  opened  and  they  saw  that  he 
was  suffering  in  their  behalf  (4-6).  Patiently  he 
suffered,  and  was  finally  taken  away  and  buried 
among  evildoers  (7-9).  Jehovah  has  purposed  that 
he  should  be  exalted  through  suft'ering;  surrounded  by 
his  seed  he  will  occupy  a  seat  among  the  mighty  (10-12). 

Zion's  Future  Splendor,  Chapter  54.  Zion,  now  bar- 
ren and  desolate,  will  have  many  children,  and  her 
borders  will  be  extended  to  accommodate  all  (1-3). 
The  shame  of  her  youth  and  the  reproach  of  her 
widowhood  are  to  be  blotted  out  (4-6).  Her  rejection 
was  only  temporary,  but  her  restoration  will  be  final 
and  as  permanent  as  the  covenant  with  Noah  (7-10). 
Jerusalem  is  to  be  rebuilt  in  magnificence  and  splendor, 
and  her  inhabitants  will  live  in  peace  forever  (11-17). 

The  Promised  Blessings  Intended  for  All,  Chapter 
55.  These  promises  are  intended  for  all;  therefore 
let  all  partake  of  the  blessings  so  freely  offered  (55. 
1-5).  The  summons  is  urgent,  for  Jehovah  is  about 
to  manifest  himself  (6,  7).  This  statement  is  true, 
though  his  thoughts  and  purposes  are  beyond  the 
understanding  of  men  (8,  9).  Already  the  word  of 
redemption  has  gone  forth,  and  it  will  not  return 
without  accomplishing  its  purpose  (10,  11);  the  deliv- 
erance from  exile  is  at  hand,  when  all  will  be  joy 
and  felicity  (12,  13). 

The  Future  Blessedness  of  the  True  Israel  and 
the  Doom  of  the  Apostates,  Chapters  56-66.  The 
third  section  (chapters  56-66),  which  contrasts  the 
future  blessedness  of  the  true  Israel  with  the  doom 
of  the  apostates,  is  less  homogeneous  than  the  other 
two  sections.  "In  passing  from  chapter  55  to  chapter 
56,"  says  Skinner,  "the  reader  is  at  once  sensible  of 


232      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

a  change  of  manner  and  circumstance,  which  becomes 
still  more  manifest  as  he  proceeds." 

All  who  Keep  the  Law  of  Jehovah  to  Enjoy 
Fellowship  with  Jehovah,  Chapters  56,  57.  Chapter 
56  begins  with  a  blessing  upon  all  who  keep  the  law 
of  Jehovah,  especially  upon  those  who  keep  the  Sab- 
bath holy  (i,  2).  Even  proselytes  and  eunuchs  who 
observe  the  Sabbath  are  permitted  to  participate  in 
the  temple  worship,  for  Jehovah's  house  shall  be 
called  "a  house  of  prayer  for  all  peoples"  (3-8).  There 
follows  a  section  of  an  entirely  different  character 
(56.  9 — 57.  10),  in  which  the  prophet  turns  from  the 
glories  of  the  future  to  denounce  the  sins  of  his  con- 
temporaries. It  opens  with  a  denunciation  of  the 
faithless  shepherds  who  neglected  their  flock  Israel 
and  allowed  it  to  perish  (56.  9 — 57.  2).  The  succeeding 
verses  are  directed  against  idolatries  of  various  forms 
(3-10).  Such  conduct  means  certain  doom  (ii-i3a); 
repentance  offers  the  only  hope  of  escape,  for  Jehovah 
alone  can  revive  and  restore  them  (i3b-2i). 

The  Fast  Acceptable  to  Jehovah,  Chapter  58. 
The  people  complain  that  Jehovah  has  failed  to  re- 
ward their  painstaking  observance  of  the  fast  days 
(58.  I -3 a);  to  which  the  prophet  replies  that  fasting 
without  a  righteous  life  is  of  no  value  in  the  sight 
of  Jehovah  (3b-5).  The  fast  in  which  he  delights 
consists  in  deeds  of  philanthropy,  unselfishness,  gen- 
erosity, loving-kindness.  If  they  practice  these,  ob- 
serve the  Sabbath,  and  do  the  will  of  Jehovah  in 
other  respects,  he  will  show  them  his  favor  and  exalt 
them  forever  (6-14). 

Sinfulness  the  Cause  of  the  Present  Distress, 
Chapter  59.    It  is  not  the  impotence  of  Jehovah,  but 


ISAIAH.  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  233 

the  sinfulness  of  the  people,  that  has  caused  their 
salvation  to  be  withheld  (59.  1-8).  The  prophet, 
putting  himself  in  the  place  of  the  people,  pictures 
their  hopeless  condition  and  vain  endeavor  to  find 
relief  (9-1 1),  and  makes  a  confession  of  the  national 
wickedness  that  has  caused  the  present  distress  (12- 
15a).  Though  the  present  is  so  dark,  the  prophet  is 
convinced  that  some  day  Jehovah  will  interfere,  to 
execute  vengeance  upon  his  adversaries  and  to  re- 
deem the  penitent  Zion  (i5b-2i). 

Future  Glory  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem,  Chapters 
60-62.  When  this  redemption  is  wrought  the  city 
of  Jerusalem  will  be  glorious.  Darkness  may  cover 
the  earth,  but  Jerusalem  will  be  bright  and  the  nations 
of  the  earth  will  come  to  her  light  (60.  1-3).  Her 
exiled  children  will  be  restored,  and  the  wealth  of 
the  nations  will  come  unto  her  (4-9).  Then  she  will 
become  the  mistress  of  the  nations;  they  will  build 
her  walls,  kings  will  serve  her,  and  treasures  untold 
will  be  brought  for  the  beautifying  of  Jehovah's 
sanctuary  (10-14).  Her  inhabitants  will  live  forever 
in  prosperity  and  peace,  in  righteousness  and  light 
(15-22).  The  promise  of  the  future  glory  of  Zion  is 
continued  in  chapter  61.  The  prophet  is  conscious 
of  a  sublime  mission,  and  his  labor  will  not  be  in 
vain  (1-3).  The  waste  places  will  be  rebuilt  (4), 
Israel  will  become  the  priestly  mediator  between  the 
nations  and  Jehovah  (5,  6),  and  receive  double  com- 
pensation for  past  sufferings  (7-9).  The  prophet,  as 
the  mouthpiece  of  the  redeemed  community,  rejoices 
in  the  transformation  wrought  (10,  11).  He  also 
declares  that  he  will  continue  to  labor  on  Zion's  be- 
half until  her  redemption  is  complete  (62.  1-5).     He 


234      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

beholds  watchmen  upon  the  wall  who  remind  Jehovah 
of  his  promises  to  Zion  (6,  7),  which  he  will  surely 
keep  (8,  9).  The  time  of  deliverance  is  at  hand,  and 
it  is  time  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  return  of  the 
exiles  (10-12). 

Doom  of  Edom;  Prayer  for  a  Renewal  of  the 
Divine  Favor,  Chapters  63,  64.  While  Zion  is 
exalted,  her  enemies,  especially  Edom,  are  trodden 
down  (63.  1-6).  There  follows,  in  63.  7 — 64.  12,  a 
prayer  of  the  people  for  the  renewal  of  Jehovah's 
former  loving-kindness.  It  opens  with  a  commemora- 
tion of  Jehovah's  goodness  to  the  faithful  nation  in 
its  youth  (7-9).  True,  Israel  has  rebelled,  but  it  still 
remembers  the  divine  mercy  (10-14).  O  that  Jehovah 
would  return  to  his  people  (15-19).  This  petition 
is  continued  in  chapter  64.  O  that  he  would  repeat 
the  wonderful  manifestations  of  the  past  (1-3),  for 
his  withdrawal  has  increased  the  nation's  sin  and 
distress  (4-7).  The  prayer  closes  with  an  appeal  to 
the  divine  fatherhood  and  an  earnest  plea  that  Jehovah 
will  restore  his  favor  to  his  children  (8-12). 

The  Faithful  and  the  Rebellious,  Chapter  65.  In 
chapter  65,  which  seems  to  be  intended  for  a  reply 
to  the  prayer,  a  distinction  is  made  between  Jehovah's 
faithful  servants  and  the  rebellious.  Jehovah  has 
always  been  accessible  to  his  people,  but  they  have 
rebelled  against  him,  and  now  he  will  destroy  the 
evildoers  (1-7).  A  faithful  remnant  will  be  preserved 
and  enjoy  the  divine  blessing  (8-10);  on  the  other 
hand,  those  that  forsake  Jehovah  will  be  cut  off  (i  i,  12). 
In  verse  13  the  rebellious  are  addressed:  While  Jeho- 
vah's true  servants  will  enjoy  the  presence  and  favoi 
of  their  God,  the  rebellious  will  be  completely    anni' 


ISAIAH.  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  235 

hilated   (13-16).     The  various  blessings  in  store   for 
the  former  are  enumerated  in  verses  1 7-2  5 . 

Jehovah  to  Reward  the  Faithful,  to  Destroy  the 
Wicked,  Chapter  66.  In  view  of  the  anticipated 
restoration  of  the  temple  the  prophet  reminds  the 
people,  in  chapter  66,  that  no  earthly  dwelling  place 
is  adequate  to  contain  the  majesty  of  Jehovah  (i,  2), 
nor  can  an  insincere  worship  win  his  favor  (3,  4). 
The  faithless  will  be  destroyed,  while  the  faithful  in 
Zion  will  be  redeemed  (5-9).  Peace  and  joy  will 
reign  in  the  new  Jerusalem,  when  Jehovah  will  comfort 
those  who  now  mourn  (10-14).  Verse  15  returns  to 
the  judgment  upon  the  evildoers  (15-17).  The  judg- 
ment is  followed  by  a  glorious  restoration,  when  the 
faithful  will  be  exalted  forever,  while  the  punishment 
of  the  impenitent  rebels  will  endure  forever  (18-24). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  ISAIAH  40-66 

The  Book  of  Consolation.  "In  many  respects," 
says  Comill,  "this  Second  or  Deutero- Isaiah  must 
be  accounted  the  most  brilliant  jewel  of  prophetic 
literature.  In  him  are  gathered  together  as  in  a 
focus  all  the  great  and  noble  meditations  of  the  proph- 
ecy which  preceded  him,  and  he  reflects  them  with 
the  most  gorgeous  refraction,  and  with  the  most 
beauteous  play  of  light  and  color."  The  essential 
characteristic  of  the  message  of  the  chapters  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  opening  words,  "Comfort  ye,  comfort 
ye  my  people,  saith  your  God.  Speak  ye  comfortably 
to  Jerusalem;  and  cry  unto  her,  that  her  warfare  is 
accomplished,  that  her  iniquity  is  pardoned,  that  she 
hath  received  of  Jehovah's  hand  double  for  all  her 
sins."  The  all-pervading  note  is  consolation;  hence 
the  chapters  have  been  styled  the  "Book  of  Consola- 


236      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

tion."  The  theme  of  the  earlier  prophets  was  primarily 
judgment,  but  they  saw  a  ray  of  light  beyond  the 
darkness  and  gloom.  These  chapters  assume  that 
the  judgment  has  fallen,  the  exile  is  a  reality,  the 
poor  Jews  are  oppressed  and  pining  away  in  their 
grief;  but  the  author  beholds  the  end  of  the  captivity 
and  oppression,  and  he  seeks  to  revive  the  drooping 
spirits  with  this  message  of  hope  and  salvation. 

The  Mission  of  the  Redeemed  Israel.  To  the 
prophet  Israel's  release  from  exile  means  something 
more  than  a  restoration  to  the  promised  land.  It  is 
only  one  step  in  the  carrying  out  of  God's  redemptive 
purpose  for  the  whole  human  race.  The  deliverance 
of  Israel  will  be  a  revelation  of  the  sole  deity  of  Jehovah, 
and  will  open  the  eyes  of  the  surrounding  nations, 
though  it  will  not  succeed  in  leading  all  of  them  to 
a  complete  knowledge  of  the  true  God.  Therefore, 
when  Israel  is  restored  to  its  former  home  and  to 
intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah,  it  will  take  up  the 
work  that  still  remains  to  be  done  and  become  the 
minister  of  salvation  to  the  rest  of  mankind,  as  Jehovah 
had  ordained  in  the  beginning. 

The  Sole  Deity  of  Jehovah.  The  prophet  never 
wearies  of  emphasizing  the  sole  deity  of  Jehovah.  This 
was  not  a  new  truth,  for  from  the  time  of  Amos  on  it 
had  been  taught  in  one  way  or  another.  But  there 
was  need  of  stating  this  truth  in  a  more  forceful  and 
comprehensive  way.  In  the  thought  of  the  ancients 
the  fortunes  of  a  deity  were  closely  bound  up  with 
the  fortunes  of  his  worshipers.  The  prosperity  and 
success  of  the  worshipers  were  an  indication  of  the 
power  and  supremacy  of  their  God;  on  the  other 
hand,  their  misfortunes  and  defeat  were  an  evidence  of 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  237 

his  impotence.  Israel  had  trusted  in  Jehovah,  Baby- 
lonia in  Bel,  Marduk,  Nebo,  and  its  other  numerous 
deities;  Israel  had  been  blotted  out  as  a  nation,  and 
the  survivors  had  been  carried  into  exile;  Babylonia 
had  triumphed  and  become  the  mistress  of  the  world. 
The  great  mass  of  common  people  would  draw  but 
one  inference  from  this,  namely,  that  the  gods  of 
Babylonia  were  stronger  than  the  God  of  Israel;  and 
those  who  did  not  go  so  far  would,  at  least,  look  with 
suspicion  upon  their  God.  A  serious  situation  indeed! 
Was  it  possible  to  overcome  this  skepticism  and  unbe- 
lief? On  the  answer  to  this  question  depended,  hu- 
manly speaking,  the  fate  of  true  religion.  Our  prophet 
had  at  least  a  glimpse  of  the  far-reaching  issues  involved 
and,  especially  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  book,  he 
insists  again  and  again  on  the  sole  deity  of  Jehovah, 
while  he  points  out  with  equal  force  and  persistency 
the  nothingness  of  the  idols.  The  most  vivid  por- 
trayal of  the  folly  of  idolatry  is  found  in  44.  8-20; 
but  compare  also  40.  18-20;  41.  29;  43.  gfif. ;  etc.  "The 
teaching  of  the  prophet  on  this  theme  amounts  to  a 
sustained  polemic,  the  more  impassioned,  perhaps,  be- 
cause in  Babylon  idolatry  was  practiced  on  such  an 
imposing  scale,  and  must  have  produced  on  the  exiled 
Jews  so  overwhelming  an  impression"  (46.  i,  2).  A 
strong  argument  for  the  sole  deity  of  Jehovah  is 
drawn  from  the  fulfillment  of  prophecies  delivered  in 
former  days  (41.  21-26;  42.  8,  9;  43.  9-13;  44.  8;  45. 
20,  21;  46.  9). 

The  Divine  Omnipotence  and  Supremacy.  Closely 
connected  with  the  sole  deity  of  Jehovah  is  his  su- 
premacy or  omnipotence;  indeed,  the  latter  is  simply 
one  aspect  of  the  former,  for  if  Jehovah  alone  is  God, 


238      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

it  naturally  follows  that  he  is  all-powerful  and  su- 
preme. Evidences  of  the  divine  power  and  supremacy 
may  be  seen  on  every  hand:  (i)  In  creation  and  the 
present  course  of  nature:  "Lift  up  your  eyes  on  high, 
and  see  who  hath  created  these,  that  bringeth  out 
their  host  by  number;  he  calleth  them  all  by  name; 
by  the  greatness  of  his  might,  and  for  that  he  is  strong 
in  power,  not  one  is  lacking"  (40.  26;  compare  verses 
12,  28).  (2)  In  the  affairs  of  men  and  nations:  "It 
is  he  that  sitteth  above  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and 
the  inhabitants  therof  are  as  grasshoppers;  that 
stretcheth  out  the  heavens  as  a  curtain,  and  spreadeth 
them  out  as  a  tent  to  dwell  in;  that  bringeth  princes 
to  nothing;  that  maketh  the  judges  of  the  earth  as 
vanity"  (40.  22,  23).  (3)  In  the  past  history  of  Israel: 
"I  have  declared,  and  I  have  saved,  and  I  have  showed; 
and  there  was  no  strange  god  among  you:  therefore 
ye  are  my  witnesses,  saith  Jehovah,  and  I  am  God" 
(43.  12;  compare  51.  2,  pff.)-  (4)  In  the  events  now 
taking  place,  especially  in  the  conquests  of  Cyrus: 
"Who  hath  raised  up  one  from  the  east,  whom  he 
calleth  in  righteousness  to  his  foot?  ...  I  have  raised 
up  one  from  the  north,  and  he  is  come"  (41.  2,  25; 
compare  44.  28;  45.  1-3). 

It  is  to  emphasize  more  strongly  the  omnipotence 
and  supremacy  of  Jehovah  that  the  prophet  institutes 
the  comparisons  between  him  and  the  impotent  idols 
to  which  reference  has  been  made.  He  also  contrasts 
the  omnipotence  of  Jehovah  with  the  weakness  of 
man:  "All  flesh  is  grass,  and  all  the  goodliness  thereof 
is  as  the  flower  of  the  field"  (40.  6). 

The  omnipotence  and  supremacy  of  Jehovah  are 
discussed  by  the  prophet  for  a  specific  purpose,  namely^ 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  239 

to  comfort  the  exiles  who  are  now  in  distress  and 
despair.  The  omnipotent  God,  who  has  chosen  Israel 
as  his  servant,  to  carry  out  his  universal  redemptive 
purpose,  will  not  forsake  him  in  the  present  crisis. 
Already  he  has  raised  up  Cyrus  to  perform  his  pleasure, 
that  is,  to  bring  deliverance  to  the  exiles;  already 
he  is  on  his  way  to  Babylon;  the  city  will  surely  fall, 
and  then  Jehovah  will  gather  the  exiles  and  caiTy 
them  safely  through  the  desert  to  their  former  home 

(40-  3-5.  9-1 1 ;  43-  14). 

The  Righteousness  of  Jehovah.  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  that  the  author  of  these  chapters  con- 
ceives the  righteousness  of  Jehovah  to  be  that  atti- 
tude or  kind  of  manifestation  which  expresses  the 
divine  fidelity  to  the  covenant  relation  between  Israel 
and  Jehovah.  This  righteousness  finds  expression  in 
various  ways:  (i)  In  speech:  "I,  Jehovah,  speak  right- 
eousness, I  declare  things  that  are  right"  (45.  19).  In 
exhorting  the  people  to  seek  him  Jehovah  spoke  right- 
eousness, for  it  was  his  purpose  that  he  should  be 
found;  which  was  proper  and  right  in  view  of  the 
covenant  established  in  the  beginning.  (2)  In  the 
deliverance  of  Israel.  Whatever  Jehovah  has  done,  is 
doing,  or  wiU  do  for  Israel,  is  in  accord  with  the  pur- 
pose embodied  in  the  first  covenant,  that  Israel  should 
be  the  chosen  people  and  carry  out  the  redemptive 
purpose  of  God.  He  called  Israel,  his  servant,  in  right- 
eousness (42.  6),  he  will  uphold  him  by  the  right  hand 
of  his  righteousness  (41.  10);  he  has  raised  up  Cyrus 
in  righteousness  (45.  13),  and  he  will  bring  near  his 
righteousness  in  the  deliverance  and  restoration  of  Is- 
rael to  Zion  (46.  13;  56.  i).  (3)  In  the  salvation  of 
mankind.     The  covenant  with  Israel  implied  more  than 


240      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

that  it  should  be  a  peculiar  people;  it  implied  that 
through  Israel  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  should 
come  to  all  mankind.  Hence  the  determination  that 
all  men  should  submit  to  Jehovah  is  a  manifestation  of 
his  righteousness:  "By  myself  have  I  sworn,  the  word 
is  gone  forth  from  my  mouth  in  righteousness,  and 
shall  not  return,  that  unto  me  every  knee  shall  bow, 
every  tongue  shall  swear"  (45.  23;  compare  51.  5,  6,  8). 

The  Holy  One  of  Israel.  The  first  part  of  the 
Book  of  Isaiah  has  much  to  say  about  the  holiness 
of  Jehovah.  Isaiah  is  very  fond  of  the  title  "the 
Holy  One  of  Israel,"  to  describe  the  relation  of  Jehovah 
to  his  people;  indeed,  he  may  have  coined  the  term. 
Chapters  4off.  show  the  same  fondness  for  the  title. 
It  is  "the  Holy  One  of  Israel"  who  will  redeem  and 
exalt  the  exiles:  "Thy  redeemer  is  the  Holy  One  of 
Israel"  (41.  14;  compare  43.  14;  47.  4;  48.  17;  49.  7; 
54-  51  55-  5;  60.  9,  14).  The  holiness  of  Jehovah  is 
the  motive  of  his  righteousness.  Because  he  is  holy, 
that  is,  because  he  is  truly  God  and  endowed  with 
the  fullness  of  perfection,  he  must  be  true  to  the 
covenant  relation  established  in  the  beginning.  What- 
ever Israel  may  do  or  fail  to  do,  his  nature  and  char- 
acter demand  that  he  do  his  share  to  make  Israel  in 
truth  his  own  peculiar  people,  and  through  it  bring 
the  knowledge  of  himself  to  the  w^hole  human  race. 

The  Name  and  the  Glory  of  Jehovah.  Two  ideas 
very  prominent  in  the  Book  of  Ezekiel  are  also 
emphasized  by  the  author  of  Isa.  4off.,  namely,  that 
Jehovah  will  redeem  Israel  "for  his  name's  sake"  and 
for  the  purpose  of  manifesting  "his  glory."  With  the 
former  phrase  the  prophet,  like  Ezekiel,  means  that 
the  redemptive  work  of  Jehovah  is  not  due  to  any 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  241 

merit  on  the  part  of  the  redeemed,  but  rather  to  the 
desire  of  Jehovah  to  prevent  the  nations  from  getting 
a  false  conception  of  him,  and  to  make  known  to  them 
his  tnie  nature  and  character  (43.  25;  48.  9-1 1,\  In 
a  similar  manner  the  statement  that  Jehovah  has 
done  or  will  do  a  certain  thing  for  his  glory  (40.  5 ; 
43-  71  59-  19 i  60.  I,  2;  66.  18,  19)  means  that  by  the 
act  he  seeks  to  reveal  his  glorious  majesty  and  power, 
his  universal  supremacy,  that  all  men  may  learn  to 
know  him  as  the  only  true  God. 

The  Divine  Purpose  the  Redemption  of  the  Whole 
World.  The  prophet's  view  of  Israel  is  determined  by 
his  conviction  that  the  ultimate  purpose  of  Jehovah  is 
the  redemption  of  the  whole  world:  "My  house  shall  be 
called  a  house  of  prayer  for  all  peoples*'  (56.  7).  This 
belief,  that  the  ultimate  goal  of  all  history  was  that  all 
men  and  nations  should  turn  to  God  and  become  his 
children,  gave  to  the  prophet  a  new  basis  for  his  con- 
templation of  the  history  and  destiny  of  Israel,  or,  at 
least,  caused  him  to  expand  and  emphasize  a  view  found 
in  less  developed  form  in  earlier  prophetic  utterances. 
"Israel  alone  knows  and  possesses  the  true  God.  Only 
through  Israel  can  the  other  nations  learn  to  know  him, 
and  tivAS  Israel  becomes  the  servant  and  messenger  of 
God,  the  laborer  and  herald  of  God  to  man.  Israel 
is  to  mankind  what  the  prophet  is  to  Israel.  God 
is  the  God  of  the  whole  earth,  and  Israel  his  prophet 
for  the  whole  earth." 

Israel  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  to  Carry  Out  his  Re- 
demptive Purpose.  The  prophet  looks  upon  Israel 
as  the  servant  of  Jehovah  charged  with  a  mission 
to  mankind.  Perhaps  the  most  unique  element  in 
the  teaching  of  this  prophet,   especially  in  chapters 


«42      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

40-53,  is  the  constant  reference  to  the  servant  of 
Jehovah.  That  some  of  the  passages  refer  to  Israel 
as  the  servant  cannot  be  doubted.  For  example, 
41.  8ff.,  "But  thou,  Israel,  my  servant,"  or  44.  i, 
"Yet  now  hear,  O  Jacob  my  servant,  and  Israel, 
whom  I  have  chosen,"  and  several  more.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  in  these  and  similar  passages 
Israel  is  always  spoken  of  as  a  nation  with  a  mission. 
Delitzsch's  Interpretation  of  the  Servant  Passages. 
The  significance  of  these  passages  is  quite  clear, 
but  there  are  many  who  hold  that  as  the  prophet 
proceeds  and  his  argument  progresses  the  meaning  of 
the  term  "servant  of  Jehovah"  changes.  In  the  words 
of  Delitzsch,  "The  idea  of  the  servant  assumed,  as 
it  were,  the  form  of  a  pyramid.  The  base  was  the 
people  of  Israel  as  a  whole,  the  central  section  was 
Israel  according  to  the  Spirit,  and  the  apex  is  the 
person  of  the  mediator  of  salvation  springing  out  of 
Israel."  That  in  some  cases  the  term  cannot  be  used 
of  the  historical  nation  Israel  is  shown,  for  example, 
in  49.  iff.,  where  the  servant  describes  the  mission 
he  has  received  from  Jehovah.  The  servant  is  still 
called  Israel:  "Thou  art  my  servant;  Israel,  in  whom 
I  will  be  glorified"  (3);  but  it  is  distinctly  stated 
that  the  servant  has  a  mission  to  the  nation  Israel, 
and,  after  that  mission  is  fulfilled,  to  the  other  nations 
(5,  6).  Here  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  his- 
torical nation  Israel,  or,  the  Israel  after  the  flesh,  and 
the  ideal  Israel,  which  had  its  historical  existence  in 
the  faithful  worshipers  of  Jehovah  within  the  nation, 
or,  the  Israel  after  the  Spirit.  The  Israel  after  the 
flesh  is  apostate  (42.  18),  and  the  first  task  of  the 
Israel  after  the  Spirit  is  to  restore  the  apostate  nation. 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  243 

This  done,  the  whole  redeemed  nation  may  enter  upon 
its  redemptive  work  for  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

The  Servant  in  Isa.  52.  13 — 53.  12.  It  is  less 
certain  that  anywhere  in  the  section  the  servant  of 
Jehovah  is  spoken  of  as  an  individual.  The  two 
passages  which  are  thought  by  some  to  favor  an 
individual  interpretation  are  50.  4-9  and  52.  13 — 53.  12. 
If  these  passages  stood  by  themselves  they  might  be 
thus  interpreted,  but  if  studied  in  connection  with 
the  other  "servant"  passages  and  in  the  light  of  their 
context  it  seems  more  natural  to  refer  these  also  to 
the  righteous  nucleus  within  the  nation.  The  personi- 
fication may  seem  very  bold,  but  having  once  repre- 
sented Israel,  that  is,  a  collective  idea,  as  a  servant, 
that  is,  as  an  individual,  the  author  would  naturally 
continue  to  speak  of  the  personified  collective  as  an 
individual.  In  50.  4-9  the  personified  righteous 
nucleus  is  represented  as  expressing  its  consciousness 
of  a  divinely  given  mission.  In  52.  13-15  Jehovah 
announces  the  exaltation  of  the  servant  after  his 
difficult  task  is  accomplished.  In  53.  i  the  penitent 
Israel  of  the  future  is  the  speaker;  the  servant  is  again 
the  righteous  portion,  which  has  at  last  succeeded  in 
bringing  the  nation  to  its  senses.  The  redeemed 
nation,  looking  back  over  the  past,  tells  of  its  feelings 
as  it  watched  the  fortunes  of  the  faithful.  At  first 
it  thought  that  their  sufferings  were  punishment  for 
sin,  as  was  the  case  wdth  the  wicked;  but  at  last  it 
came  to  see  that  all  the  sufferings  were  endured  in 
order  to  win  the  faithless  portion  of  the  nation  back 
to  Jehovah. 

That  this  is  the  right  interpretation  of  these  pas- 
sages is  shown  also  by  the  fact,  to  which  attention  is 


244      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

called  in  several  places,  that  the  servant  is  to  have 
an  important  part  in  the  restoration  of  the  exiles 
from  captivity  and  in  bringing  them  to  a  true  knowl- 
edge of  Jehovah.  Only  when  the  righteous  nucleus 
has  accomplished  this  task,  the  whole  redeemed  nation 
may  enter  upon  its  larger  work,  to  lead  all  nations 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God.  This  greater  work 
receives  special  emphasis  in  chapters  54ff. 

The  Fulfillment  of  Isa.  52.  13 — 53.  12.  Christians 
are  accustomed  to  look  upon  the  fifty-third  chapter 
of  Isaiah  as  a  Messianic  passage  finding  its  fulfill- 
ment in  Jesus  the  Christ;  and  the  above  interpreta- 
tion does  not  interfere  with  this  view.  The  "servant," 
whoever  he  may  have  been  in  the  mind  of  the  prophet, 
remains  a  type  of  Jesus.  Israel,  the  servant  of  redemp- 
tion, through  disobedience  cut  itself  off,  as  a  nation, 
from  God  and  its  place  in  his  plan  of  redemption. 
As  a  result  its  place  became  vacated,  and  another 
servant  had  to  be  substituted.  This  other  servant, 
Christians  rightly  believe,  was  Jesus  the  Christ.  He 
was  the  true  and  perfect  servant,  who  wrought  a 
salvation  far  superior  to  that  which  Israel  ever  could 
have  accomplished,  a  salvation  not  for  time  only,  but 
for  eternity,  not  external  only,  but  internal,  not  only 
for  the  nation  as  a  whole,  but  for  every  individual 
in  the  nation,  not  for  Israel  alone,  but  for  mankind. 

Glories  of  the  Messianic  Age.  Perhaps  no  other 
prophet  portrays  the  glories  and  splendor  of  the 
future  kingdom  of  God  as  vividly  as  does  the  author 
of  these  chapters.  The  spiritual  restoration  of  Israel 
and  the  return  to  its  former  home  mark  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a  new  age,  "an  age  of  universal  salvation  in 
which   all  nations  share  in   the   blessings   that   flow 


ISAIAH,  FORTY  TO  SIXTY-SIX  245 

from  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God."  The  com- 
pleteness of  the  transformation  is  indicated  in  the 
promise  that  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  will  be 
established  (65.  17,  18).  As  in  the  other  prophetic 
books,  Jerusalem  is  expected  to  be  the  center  of  the 
new  kingdom,  to  which  all  the  nations  of  the  earth 
will  come  with  their  gifts.  It  will  be  illumined  with 
a  light  and  splendor  that  proceed  from  Jehovah  him- 
self (chapter  60).  Israel  will  be  the  priestly  mediator 
between  Jehovah  and  the  nations  (61.  5,  6).  The 
curse  of  barrenness  will  be  removed  from  the  land, 
the  wilderness  will  become  like  Eden  and  the  desert 
like  the  garden  of  Jehovah  (51.  3).  The  peace  of 
paradise  will  also  be  restored  (65.  25). 

Material  prosperity  and  magnificence  occupy  a  large 
place  in  the  expectations  of  the  prophet:  the  archi- 
tectural beauty  of  Zion  (54.  11,  12;  60.  13,  17),  its 
wealth  (60.  5-7,  9,  13,  16;  61.  6;  66.  12),  security  in 
the  enjoyment  of  these  blessings  (57.  13;  62.  8,  9),  and 
a  plentiful  population  (49.  i7ff. ;  54.  iff.). 

Emphasis  upon  the  Externals  of  Religion.  The 
externals  of  religion  receive  more  emphasis  than  they 
do  from  the  earlier  prophets.  Sabbath  observance  is 
enjoined  (56.  2,  6;  58.  13),  burnt  offerings  and  other 
oacrifices  are  commended  (56.  7),  the  riches  of  the 
nations  will  be  used  for  the  beautifying  of  Jehovah's 
sanctuary  (60.  13).  But  the  prophet  by  no  means 
overlooks  the  weightier  matters.  He  makes  it  clear 
throughout  the  entire  prophecy  that  only  those  who 
live  in  true  heart  fellowship  with  Jehovah  can  enjoy 
the  glories  of  the  new  age;  and  his  description  of  the 
ideal  fast  resembles  in  every  respect  the  high  ethical 
teaching  of  the  eighth  century  prophets  (58.  6,  7). 


CHAPTER  XI 
HAGGAI   AND  ZECHARIAH 

FROM  THE  RETURN  TO  THE  DEDICATION  OF  THE  TEMPLE  IN 
,  516  B.  C. 

Date  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah.  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  were  contemporaries.  The  utterances  of 
Haggai  are  all  dated  in  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspis,  king  of  Persia,  that  is,  in  520  B.  C.  During 
that  year  he  spoke  on  four  occasions:  on  the  first 
day  of  the  sixth  month  (i.  i),  on  the  twenty-first  day 
of  the  seventh  month  (2.  i),  and  twice  on  the  twenty- 
fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month  (2.  10,  20).  The  activity 
of  Zechariah  began  in  the  second  year  of  King  Darius, 
in  the  eighth  month  (i.  i),  that  is,  about  two  months 
after  Haggai  began  preaching.  The  last  date  men- 
tioned is  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month  of  the 
fourth  year  of  Darius  (7.  i).  Since  Zechariah  was 
probably  a  young  man  when  the  prophetic  call  came 
to  him,  his  influence  may  have  been  felt  for  many 
years  subsequent  to  518  B.  C. 

The  First  Return  from  Exile.  Babylon  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Cyrus  in  538.  Soon  after  the  occupancy 
of  the  city  he  gave  permission  to  the  Jews  to  return 
to  their  former  homes,  and  encouraged  in  every  way 
the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth.  This 
leniency,  shown  also  toward  other  nations  deported  by 
his  predecessors,  was  undoubtedly  due,  in  part  at 
least,  to  political  considerations.  A  clash  with  Egypt 
was  inevitable;  hence  it  was  to  the  interest  of  Cyrus 

246 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  247 

to  have  on  the  Egyptian  border  a  state  that  was 
bound  to  him  by  the  strongest  ties  of  gratitude,  and 
upon  the  fidehty  of  which  he  could  rely.  In  the 
spring  of  537  a  large  company  started  on  the  home- 
ward journey.  On  reaching  Jerusalem  the  returned 
exiles  immediately  set  up  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings 
(Ezra  3.  2ff. ;  compare  Hag.  2.  14),  and,  according  to 
Ezra  3.  8-13,  they  laid,  in  the  second  year,  the  founda- 
tion of  the  temple. 

Cessation  of  Building  Operations.  However,  the 
first  enthusiasm  soon  grew  cold  and  building  opera- 
tions ceased.  The  reasons  for  this  are  not  far  to  seek: 
(i)  During  their  stay  in  Babylon  the  exiles  had  learned 
to  do  without  the  temple;  only  the  religious  zealots, 
always  in  the  minority,  would  miss  it.  (2)  The  oppo- 
sition of  the  Samaritans  and  other  surrounding  tribes 
would  offer  a  ready  excuse  to  the  indifferent  Jews. 
(3)  The  nonfulfillment  of  the  earlier  prophecies  con- 
cerning the  glories  of  the  restoration  would  tend  to 
develop  religious  indifference  and  skepticism.  (4) 
Limited  resources  and  poverty  resulting  from  the 
failure  of  the  crops  (i.  6)  and  from  the  devastation 
wrought  by  the  Persian  armies  on  their  way  to  Egypt 
could  and  would  be  urged.  It  is  not  difficult,  then, 
to  see  how  building  operations  begun  in  536  might 
come  to  a  complete  standstill. 

Events  Affecting  the  Fortunes  of  Persia.  While 
the  postexilic  community  was  struggling  against  great 
odds  to  establish  itself  in  and  near  Jerusalem,  impor- 
tant events  were  taking  place  in  the  outside  world. 
Cyrus  died  in  529,  leaving  to  his  son  Cambyses  an 
empire  extending  from  Lydia  in  the  west  to  India  in 
the  east.     Cambyses,  who  reigned  until  $21,  added 


248      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Egypt  to  his  possessions.  He  was  followed  by  a 
usurper,  Gaumata,  who  pretended  to  be  Smerdis,  the 
son  of  Cyrus,  but  after  a  reign  of  seven  months  he 
was  assassinated  and  Darius  Hystaspis  was  raised  to 
the  throne.  He  found  the  empire  in  a  state  of  great 
restlessness;  rebellions  broke  out  everywhere,  province 
after  province  revolted;  in  Babylon  two  pretenders 
attempted,  in  rapid  succession,  to  throw  off  the  Persian 
rule.    The  whole  empire  was  shaken  from  end  to  end. 

Interpretation  of  these  Events  by  the  Prophets. 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  like  their  predecessors  in  the 
prophetic  office,  read  the  signs  of  the  times.  They 
saw  in  the  widespread  rebellions  an  indication  of  the 
impending  doom  of  the  Persian  empire  (Hag.  2.  6,  7, 
22),  and  of  the  expiration  of  the  seventy  years  of 
chastisement  (Jer.  25.  11).  They  were  also  convinced 
that,  with  the  hostile  world  power  removed,  the  way 
would  be  clear  for  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God.  But  in  the  thought  of  the  two  prophets  the 
establishment  of  the  Messianic  kingdom  was  closely 
connected  with  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  and  the 
exaltation  of  a  descendant  of  David.  Hence  the 
earnest  exhortations  to  resume  building  operations  and 
the  promises  to  Zerubbabel,  the  servant  of  Jehovah. 

Religious  and  Moral  Conditions.  The  one  out- 
standing feature  seems  to  have  been  religious  indif- 
ference, due  to  the  causes  already  mentioned,  especially 
to  disappointment.  The  preexilic  and  exilic  prophets 
had  pictured  the  glories  of  the  restoration  in  the 
brightest  colors,  and  thus  had  raised  the  hopes  and 
expectations  of  the  returning  exiles  to  the  highest 
pitch;  but  when  the  years  passed  without  the  realiza- 
tion of  these  hopes,  indifference  and  skepticism  settled 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  249 

upon  them.  Why  serve  a  God  who  failed  to  fulfill 
the  promises  made  by  his  prophets?  For  this  reason 
the  people  looked  after  their  own  comforts,  while 
they  neglected  the  interests  of  the  sanctuary  (Hag.  1.9), 
excusing  themselves  by  saying  that  the  time  for  the 
building  of  the  temple  had  not  yet  arrived  (Hag.  1.2). 
On  the  other  hand,  they  brought  sacrifices  and  offer- 
ings (Hag.  2.  14),  and  the  ritual  law  was  observed 
in  other  respects  (Hag.  2.  11-13).  Chapters  7,  8  of 
Zechariah  show  that  feasts  and  fasts  were  observed. 
Otherwise  we  are  left  in  the  dark  concerning  religious 
and  moral  conditions  in  Judah  at  this  time. 

THE  PROPHETS  HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH 

Haggai.  Haggai  appears  upon  the  scene  suddenly 
in  520  B.  C,  and  disappears  just  as  suddenly.  Nothing 
is  known  of  his  life  before  or  after  his  preaching. 
Chiefly  on  the  basis  of  2.  3  it  has  been  suggested  that 
he  was  one  of  a  small  company  that  had  seen  the 
former  temple  in  its  glor>'.  If  so,  he  must  have  been 
an  old  man  when  he  prophesied;  and  this  supposition 
agrees   with   the   brevity   of  his   public   activity. 

Zechariah.  Zechariah  was  the  son  of  Berechiah, 
the  son  of  Iddo  (i.  i).  Iddo  was  the  chief  of  one  of 
the  priestly  families  that  returned  from  exile  with 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  (Neh.  12.  4).  Outside  of  the 
Book  of  Zechariah  the  prophet  is  mentioned  in  Ezra 
5.  i;  6.  14  as  instrumental,  with  Haggai,  in  reviving 
interest  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  In  Neh. 
12.  16  a  priest  Zechariah  is  mentioned,  who  may  be 
identical  with  our  prophet.  If  he  was  the  grandson 
of  Iddo,  who  returned  in  537,  Zechariah  was  probably 
a  young  man  when  he  began  his  prophetic  ministry; 


25©  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

hence  the  influence  of  his  personality  may  have  been 
felt  for  many  years  subsequent  to  the  latest  date 
mentioned  in  the  book,  518  B.  C,  but  of  the  later 
years  of  the  prophet  nothing  is  known. 

Task  of  the  Prophets.  The  age  needed  prophets 
with  living  faith  and  moral  earnestness.  The  lofty 
anticipations  of  the  preexilic  and  exilic  prophets  had 
not  been  realized;  the  foreign  oppressor  was  still 
strong  and  powerful,  while  the  Jews  were  poor  and 
feeble.  As  a  result  the  first  hopeful  enthusiasm  of 
the  returned  exiles  had  been  displaced  by  despondency 
and  gloom.  To  remove  these  and  to  revive  faith  in 
God  and  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  his  kingdom  was 
the  task  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  HAGGAI 

The  Book  of  Haggai  contains  four  separate  utter- 
ances, I.  i-ii;  2.  1-9;  2.  10-19;  2.  20-23,  th^  fi^st 
three  dealing  more  or  less  directly  with  the  rebuilding 
of  the  temple,  and  an  historical  section  (i.  12-15), 
which  describes  the  effects  of  the  first  discourse. 

Rebuke  of  Indifference;  Exhortation  to  Resume 
Building  Operations,  i.  i-ii.  The  first  address  (i. 
i-ii)  was  intended  primarily  for  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua,  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  heads  of  the  com- 
munity (i.  i).  The  prophet  rebukes  the  religious 
indifference  that  has  permitted  the  people  to  erect 
comfortable  houses  for  themselves,  while  the  temple 
remained  in  ruins  (2-4).  He  calls  attention  to  the 
disappointments,  distress,  and  suffering  which  they 
are  experiencing  as  a  result  of  drought,  and  tells  them 
that  these  affiicticns  have  come  to  them  as  divine 
judgments  for  their  religious  apathy.     If  they  would 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  251 

find  relief  they  must  speedily  restore  the  dwelling 
place  of  Jehovah  (5-1 1). 

Resumption  of  Building  Operations,  i.  12-15. 
The  preaching  of  Haggai  aroused  the  consciences  of 
leaders  and  people,  so  that  they  feared  Jehovah  (12). 
When  the  prophet  saw  indications  of  a  revival  of 
interest  he  changed  his  message  of  rebuke  into  one 
of  encouragement  and  promise  (13);  whereupon,  on 
the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the  sixth  month,  building 
operations  were  commenced  (14,  15), 

Message  of  Encouragement  to  the  Builders,  2.  1-9. 
It  would  seem  that  when  the  first  enthusiasm  had 
died  down,  people  began  to  think  more  soberly  about 
the  obstacles  to  be  encountered.  Their  numbers  were 
small,  the  building  material  was  costly,  some  of  it  had 
to  be  brought  from  a  distance,  there  were  no  resources 
such  as  Solomon  could  draw  upon,  and  no  allies  to 
assist  in  the  work;  instead,  they  had  to  suffer  much 
from  their  neighbors.  Under  these  discouraging  con- 
ditions the  fervor  of  some  grew  cold,  and  malcontents 
found  ready  listeners.  What  was  the  use  of  it  all  ?  They 
could  not  expect  ever  to  equal  the  temple  of  Solomon. 
Why  not  quit  work  ?  Haggai  saw  that  the  enterprise  was 
threatened  with  failure  unless  he  could  revive  the  former 
interest  and  enthusiasm.  He  therefore  addresses  the 
builders,"  Be  strong,  ...  for  I  am  with  you,saith  Jehovah 
of  hosts"  (2.  1-4).  The  present  outlook  may  be  dark,  but 
there  is  no  ground  for  discouragement,  for  the  covenant 
made  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  is  still  in  force,  and 
Jehovah  will  be  with  his  people.  In  the  end  the 
new  temple,  enriched  by  the  wealth  of  the  nations, 
that  are  about  to  be  shaken  violently,  shall  be  more 
glorious  than  the  temple  of  Solomon  (5-9). 


252      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Completion  of  the  Temple  a  Sure  Guarantee  of 
the  Return    of    the   Divine    Favor,   2.    10-19.     In    a 

short  time  new  questions  arose  among  the  people. 
Were  they  really  as  bad  as  Haggai  had  tried  to  make 
out  in  his  first  discourse?  And  if  not,  how  much 
truth  was  there  in  his  statements  that  their  calamities 
were  due  to  their  neglect  of  the  temple,  and  in  his 
promise  that  prosperity  would  be  restored  as  soon  as 
they  would  rebuild  the  temple?  To  silence  these 
doubts  and  questionings  is  the  purpose  of  the  third 
discourse.  The  prophet  propounds  to  the  priests  cer- 
tain questions  concerning  the  relative  power  of  infection 
possessed  by  clean  and  unclean  things.  The  priests 
reply  that  the  clean  is  less  contagious  than  the  unclean 
(10-13).  This  answer  the  prophet  applies  to  the  case 
in  hand.  True,  they  offer  gifts,  but  they  are  insufficient 
to  overcome  the  unclean  in  their  lives,  especially  the 
indifference  toward  the  temple;  on  the  contrary,  their 
uncleanness  makes  even  their  sacrifices  an  abomination 
in  the  sight  of  Jehovah  (14).  Once  more  he  discusses 
the  relation  between  their  calamities  and  their  neglect- 
fulness,  and  shows  that  the  former  are  the  direct 
result  of  the  latter;  then  he  closes  with  the  promise 
that  henceforth  the  divine  favor  will  rest  upon  them 

(15-19)- 

Exaltation  of  Zerubbabel,  the  Servant  of  Jehovah, 
2.  20-23.  The  fourth  utterance  is  Messianic  in  char- 
acter. It  promises  the  exaltation  of  Zerubbabel, 
the  prince  of  David's  house.  In  the  second  discourse 
the  prophet  announced  the  shaking  of  the  nations  of 
the  earth  (2.  6,  7) ;  this  announcement  he  now  repeats, 
and  adds  the  promise  that  the  shaking  will  pave  the 
way  for  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  253 

under  the  rule  of  Zerubbabel,  the  servant  and  chosen 
one  of  Jehovah  (2.  20-23). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  HAGGAI 

Unique  Place  Assigned  to  the  Temple.    Haggai  was  a 

man  of  one  idea,  the  speedy  restoration  of  the  dwelling 
place  of  Jehovah.  The  preexilic  prophets  also  consid- 
ered the  temple  the  dwelling  place  of  Jehovah,  but  their 
teaching  dwelt  almost  exclusively  upon  weightier  ethical 
and  spiritual  matters.  With  Haggai  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  is  of  primary  importance.  It  does  not  follow, 
however,  that  his  religious  capacity  was  inferior  to 
theirs.  The  change  in  emphasis  was  due  rather  to  a 
change  in  conditions.  The  Hebrew  prophets  were  raised 
up  primarily  to  meet  the  problems  of  their  day  and  gen- 
eration. Now  conditions  in  Jerusalem  after  the  exile 
were  far  different  from  those  in  the  eighth  century  B.  C. 
As  a  prophet  of  Jehovah  Haggai  must  adapt  himself  and 
his  message  to  the  changed  conditions ;  he  must  interpret 
religion  "in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  a  new  age." 
The  supreme  need  was  a  visible,  earthly  temple.  True, 
some  of  the  prophets  speak  of  a  time  when  a  house 
made  with  hands  will  be  needed  no  longer  (Isa.  66. 
I,  2),  but  the  Jews  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth 
century  were  not  yet  prepared  to  grasp  this  lofty 
conception  of  the  presence  of  Jehovah.  As  was  the 
ark  in  the  ages  gone  by,  so  now  the  temple  was  the 
outward  symbol  of  the  presence  of  Jehovah,  and  if  the 
Jews  were  to  continue  the  worship  of  Jehovah  they  still 
needed  a  material  temple.  Besides,  with  the  central 
national  government  gone,  a  new  bond  was  needed  to 
draw  together  the  different  elements  in  the  community 
and  the  exiles  scattered  among  the  nations.    In  a  reli- 


2  54      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

gious  community  what  could  serve  this  purpose  better 
than  a  common  center  of  worship,  a  place  to  which  the 
hearts  of  the  faithful  Jews  might  turn,  even  from  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  assured  that  there  they 
would  meet  their  God?  '  Is  it,  then,  too  much  to  say 
that,  humanly  speaking,  the  very  existence  of  the 
Jewish  religion  was  dependent  upon  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple?  But  if  this  is  true,  Haggai,  by  pleading 
so  persistently  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  house  of  God, 
did  a  service  of  incalculable  moment. 

Summary  of  Haggai's  Teaching.  Other  features  of 
Haggai's  teaching  are:  (i)  He  calls  attention  to  the 
covenant  relation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel,  and  to  the 
former's  continued  care  for  the  latter  (2.  5) ;  this  cove- 
nant, he  declares,  will  continue  forever  (1.  13;  2.  4). 
(2)  He  agrees  with  the  pre^xilic  prophets  in  declaring 
that  sacrifice  is  not  the  essential  thing  in  the  sight  of 
God  (2.  14).  (3)  He  shares  the  older  prophets'  ideas 
concerning  the  causes  of  calamity  and  prosperity.  The 
former  he  considers  an  expression  of  the  divine  wrath, 
a  punishment  for  sin;  the  latter  an  expression  of  the 
divine  favor,  a  reward  for  piety  (i.  6-1 1;  2.  15-19). 
(4)  He  expects  a  great  ivorld  judgment  which  will  result 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  nations;  this  overthrow  is  to 
clear  the  way  for  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  upon  earth  (2.  6,  7,  21,  22).  (5)  His  Messianic 
hope  centers  around  an  offspring  of  the  dynasty  of  David, 
Zerubbabel,  who  is  the  servant  of  Jehovah,  his  chosen 
one,  the  object  of  his  affection  (2.  23);  he  also  thinks 
of  Jehovah  as  ruling  forever  in  the  temple  (2.  9). 
(6)  Of  great  significance  is  the  universalism  of  Haggai. 
In  2.  7  he  expresses  the  hope  that  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  overawed  by  Jehovah's  majesty  and  power,  Will 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  25? 

recognize  his  supremacy  and  bring  their  precious  things 
as  offerings  to  him. 
Haggai's    One    Idea    Seen    in    All    his    Teaching. 

The  presentation  of  these  truths  is  highly  colored  by 
the  prophet's  one  idea.  He  alludes  to  the  covenant 
only  to  encourage  the  people  to  greater  zeal  in  their 
building  operations ;  sacrifice  he  mentions  to  show  that 
it  cannot  atone  for  their  neglect  of  the  temple.  Their 
calamity  or  prosperity  is  determined  by  their  attitude 
toward  the  restoration  of  the  house  of  God ;  the  over- 
throw and  conversion  of  the  nations  will  result  in  the 
enriching  of  the  temple;  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  the  exaltation  of  Zerubbabel  will 
be  the  supreme  manifestations  of  the  divine  favor, 
but  they  will  be  theirs  only  if  they  build  a  dwelling 
place  for  Jehovah. 

THE  MESSAGE  OP  ZECHARIAH 

Call  to  Repentance,  i.  1-6.  Zechariah  delivered 
his  first  message  about  two  months  after  Haggai's 
first  appearance.  The  book  opens  with  a  call  to 
repentance,  in  which  Zechariah  urges  his  hearers  to 
return  to  Jehovah,  that  they  may  enjoy  once  more 
the  divine  favor.  He  reinforces  this  exhortation  by 
an  appeal  to  the  experiences  of  their  ancestors,  who 
suffered  severe  punishments  because  they  disregarded 
the  teaching  of  the  prophets.  The  disobedience  of  the 
present  generation  may  be  followed  by  a  similar 
catastrophe  (i.  1-6). 

Eight  Night  Visions,  i.  7 — 6.  8.  About  three 
months  after  Zechariah's  first  utterance  there  came  to 
him  in  one  single  night  a  series  of  symbolical  visions. 
Their  significance  was  made  plain  to  him  by  a  heavenly 


256      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

interpreter  (i.  7 — 6.  8).  All  these  visions  have  one 
common  purpose,  "the  encouragement  of  the  Jews  to 
continue  the  work  of  restoring  the  temple  and  rebuild- 
ing the  city,  and  the  reestablishing  of  the  theocratic 
government." 

(i)  The  Angelic  Horsemen,  i.  7-17.  In  the  first 
vision — the  angelic  horsemen — the  prophet  beholds  a 
man  riding  upon  a  horse  standing  among  myrtle  trees 
(i.  7,  8);  he  is  accompanied  by  other  horsemen,  who 
report  that  they  have  walked  to  and  fro  and  have 
found  the  whole  earth  at  rest  (9-1 1).  Since  a  shaking 
of  the  nations  must  precede  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  (Hag.  2.  6,  7,  21,  22),  the  report 
meant  that  there  was  no  sign  of  the  approach  of  the 
Messianic  era.  This  is  a  disappointment  to  the  angel 
who  receives  the  report,  and  he  inquires  of  Jehovah 
how  long  he  will  delay  his  gracious  interference  (12), 
to  which  Jehovah  replies  that  though  the  shaking  may 
be  delayed  he  will  surely  return  to  his  people  and 
bless  them  and  their  land  with  abundant  prosperity 
(13-17).  The  vision,  therefore,  is  a  message  of  encour- 
agement to  the  despondent  people  to  retain  faith  in 
Jehovah,  for  he  will  surely  fulfill  the  Messianic  promises 
of  the  past. 

(2)  The  Four  Horns  and  the  Four  Smiths,  i.  18-21. 
The  second  vision — the  four  horns  and  the  four 
smiths — pictures  the  execution  of  judgment  upon 
Israel's  enemies.  The  prophet  beholds  four  horns. 
Upon  inquiry  he  is  told  by  the  interpreter  that  the 
horns  symbolize  the  nations  that  have  scattered  the 
Jews.  He  also  sees  four  smiths,  who,  he  is  informed, 
represent  the  divinely  appointed  agents  to  execute 
judgment  upon  \he  hostile  nations  (i.  18-21), 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  257 

(3)  The  Man  with  the  Measuring  Line,  2.  1-13.  The 
overthrow  of  the  nations  will  prepare  the  way  for  the 
exaltation  of  the  now  oppressed  people:  Jerusalem 
will  be  rebuilt,  Jehovah  will  return  to  live  in  Zion, 
and  many  nations  will  join  themselves  to  the  redeemed 
community.  To  impress  these  truths  upon  prophet 
and  people  is  the  purpose  of  the  third  vision — the 
man  with  the  measuring  line  (2.  1-13).  Zechariah 
sees  a  man  with  a  measuring  line  in  his  hand,  going 
forth  to  measure  Jerusalem,  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining the  location  of  the  new  walls  (i,  2).  He  is 
informed  that  walls  are  not  necessary  because  (i)  the 
city  will  be  too  populous  to  be  contained  within  walls, 
and  (2)  Jehovah  himself  will  be  a  wall  of  fire  around 
her  (3-5).  The  vision  proper  is  followed  by  an  exhorta- 
tion to  the  exiled  Jews  to  get  ready  to  flee  from  the 
land  of  exile  (6,  7),  for  Jehovah  is  about  to  shake  the 
nations  (8,  9) ;  then  he  will  return  to  Zion,  to  take  his 
permanent  abode  there  (10-13). 

(4)  The  Trial  of  the  High  Priest,  Chapter  3.  The 
first,  second,  and  third  visions  deal  with  the  judgment 
upon  the  nations,  the  restoration  from  exile,  the 
rebuilding  of  city  and  temple,  and  the  expansion  of 
the  new  community  to  the  four  comers  of  the  earth. 
But  to  bring  about  permanent  peace  and  harmony 
between  Jehovah  and  his  people  there  is  needed,  in 
addition  to  all  these  things,  a  moral  and  spiritual 
regeneration.  This  regeneration  is  symbolized  in  the 
fourth  vision — the  trial  and  acquittal  of  the  high 
priest  Joshua  (3.  i-io).  Zechariah  sees  the  high  priest 
Joshua  standing  before  the  angel  of  Jehovah;  at  his 
right  hand  is  the  adversary,  ready  to  bring  accusations 
against  him;  but  before  he  can  present  the  charges  he 


258      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

is  severely  rebuked  (i,  2).  At  the  command  of  the 
angel  the  servants  take  from  Joshua  his  filthy  gar- 
ments and  clothe  him  in  the  rich  garments  of  the 
high-priestly  office  (3-5).  Whereupon  the  angel  in- 
structs Joshua  in  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the 
office  to  which  he  is  restored,  and  promises  him  access 
to  the  Most  High,  if  he  will  properly  discharge  his 
duties  (6,  7).  He  and  his  followers  are  proclaimed  a 
sign  of  the  coming  of  "Branch,"  who  will  remove 
iniquity  from  the  land  in  one  day,  and  restore  peace 
and  prosperity  forever  (8-10). 

These  experiences  come  to  the  high  priest  not  as  an  in- 
dividual, but  as  the  representative  of  the  people.  What- 
ever befalls  him  affects  the  whole  people.  His  cleansing 
symbolizes  the  cleansing  of  the  people,  his  restoration 
the  restoration  of  the  people  to  intimate  fellowship 
with  their  God.  Because  the  cleansing  of  the  high  priest 
symbolizes  this  regeneration,  he  can  become  a  sign 
of  the  coming  of  "Branch,"  who  will  complete  the  task 
and  become  the  ruler  of  the  regenerated  community. 

(5)  The  Golden  Candlestick  and  the  Two  Olive  Trees, 
Chapter  4.  The  fourth  and  fifth  visions  are  closely 
connected.  The  foimer  centers  around  the  person  of 
the  ecclesiastical  head,  Joshua,  the  high  priest;  the 
latter — the  vision  of  the  golden  candlestick  and  the 
two  olive  trees — centers  around  the  person  of  the 
civil  head,  Zerubbabel,  the  governor.  In  the  vision 
Zechariah  beholds  a  golden  candlestick  with  seven 
lamps ;  on  top  was  an  oil  reservoir  connected  with 
the  lamps  by  pipes.  Beside  it  stood  two  olive  trees; 
from  the  overhanging  branches  of  these  oil  flowed 
continually  into  the  reservoir  and  from  it  into  the 
lamps  (4.  1-14). 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  259 

It  may  not  be  possible  to  determine  the  meaning 
of  every  feature  of  this  vision,  but  its  general  purpose 
is  clear.  "It  is  intended  to  encourage  Zerubbabel  in 
the  work  of  rebuilding  the  temple  by  impressing  upon 
him  the  truth  that,  as  that  candlestick  gave  forth  its 
light  in  silent,  ceaseless  splendor,  unfed  and  untended 
by  human  agencies,  so  the  work  in  which  he  was 
engaged"  should  surely  be  accomplished  through  the 
Divine  Spirit's  cooperation  with  him.  The  mountains 
of  difficulty  will  be  brought  low,  and  he  will  carry 
his  divinely  appointed  task  to  completion. 

(6)  The  Flying  Roll;  (7)  The  Woman  in  the  Ephah, 
Chapter  5.  The  sixth  and  seventh  visions — the  flying 
roll  and  the  woman  in  the  ephah — serve  similar  ends. 
The  removal  of  all  iniquity  is  promised  in  3.  9;  the 
two  visions  indicate  two  methods  by  which  it  will  be 
accomplished,  namely,  the  destruction  of  the  wicked 
and  the  removal  of  sin  to  a  far-distant  land,  where  it 
wiU  curse  Israel's  former  oppressors.  In  the  sixth 
vision  the  prophet  beholds  flying  through  the  air  an 
immense  roll,  symbolizing  the  curse  of  God  upon  evil- 
doers of  every  kind.  He  is  informed  that  the  roll  will 
enter  the  house  of  every  wicked  man  and  consume  it 
utterly  (5.  1-4).  In  the  seventh  vision  the  prophet 
sees  an  ephah,  in  which  sits  a  woman;  upon  its  mouth 
is  a  cover.  Two  women  with  wings  lift  up  the  ephah 
and  carry  it  through  the  air.  Upon  inquiry  he  is 
told  that  the  woman  is  to  be  deposited  in  the  land  of 
Shinar.  As  the  vision  unfolds  the  interpreter  explains 
its  symbolical  meaning.  The  woman  represents  wick- 
edness, which  is  to  be  removed  from  the  land  (3,  9). 
She  is  fastened  securely  in  the  ephah,  but  to  reduce 
the  danger  of  pollution  to  a  minimum  she  is  carried 


26o      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

to  the  distant  Shinar,  there  to  be  established  forever 

(5-  5-II). 

(8)  The    Four   Chariots   with    Horses    of    Different 

Colors,  6.  1-8.  In  the  eighth  and  last  vision — the 
four  chariots  with  horses  of  different  colors — the 
prophet  sees  coming  from  between  two  mountains  four 
chariots  drawn  by  horses  of  different  colors  (6.  1-4). 
According  to  the  present  Hebrew  text,  two  were  com- 
missioned to  go  toward  the  north,  and  one  toward  the 
south;  the  destination  of  the  fourth  is  not  indicated. 
It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  originally  the 
four  points  of  the  compass  were  mentioned,  one  chariot 
being  sent  to  each.  The  chariots  represent  divine 
messengers  of  judgment,  and  the  vision  is  intended 
to  reveal  the  fate  that  is  to  befall  the  enemies  of  the 
Jews,  especially  those  in  the  north  country.  When 
the  judgment  upon  the  north  country  is  executed,  the 
anger  of  Jehovah  is  appeased  and  his  spirit  is  quieted 
(5-8).  This  vision,  then,  like  the  first,  is  meant  to 
assure  the  prophet  that  Jehovah  is  about  to  execute 
judgment  upon  the  nations  hostile  to  him  and  to  his 
people. 

Crowning  of  the  High  Priest  Joshua,  6.  9-15.  The 
series  of  symbolical  visions  is  followed  by  a  com- 
mand to  perform  a  symbolical  act  (9-15),  which  is  so 
closely  connected  with  the  preceding  visions  that  it 
seems  best  to  consider  this  section  a  sort  of  appendix 
to  them.  The  prophet  is  urged  to  adorn  the  high 
priest  Joshua  with  a  crown  made  of  the  silver  and 
gold  sent  by  the  exiles  from  Babylon  (9-1 1),  and  to 
proclaim  him  the  type  of  "Branch,"  who  is  about  to 
appear  to  complete  the  temple  and  to  rule  over  the 
people.    His  fame  will  spread  quickly,  and  those  who 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  261 

are  afar  off  will  come  and  join  in  the  building  enter- 
prise (12-15). 
The    Essence    of    True    Religion,    Chapters    7,    8. 

After  a  silence  of  nearly  two  years  the  voice  of  Zechariah 
was  heard  again.  In  the  fourth  year  of  King  Darius 
a  deputation  came  to  the  prophet,  inquiring  whether 
the  observance  of  the  fasts  instituted  to  commemorate 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was  still  obligatory 
(7.  1-3).  This  question  would  suggest  itself  to  many 
as  the  temple  neared  completion  and  the  seventy 
years  since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  were  drawing 
to  a  close.  In  reply  the  prophet  points  out  that 
fasting  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  that  it  is  of  value  only 
as  a  means  of  increasing  devotion  and  piety  in  the 
one  who  practices  it  (4-6).  Then  he  turns  the  atten- 
tion of  the  delegation  to  the  ethical  character  of  the 
divine  demands  and  shows  that  by  disregarding  these 
their  fathers  had  brought  upon  themselves  awful 
judgments  (7-14).  Reaffirming  Jehovah's  jealousy  for 
Zion,  he  pictures  the  glory  and  prosperity  in  store  for 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  (8.  1-17).  When  these  glories 
are  realized  the  question  of  fasts  will  solve  itself,  for 
they  will  be  transformed  into  seasons  of  joy  and 
rejoicing,  to  which  multitudes  will  flock  from  all  parts 
of  the  land.  Even  foreign  nations  will  gladly  join  the 
Jews  in  their  festivities  (18-23). 

THE  TEACHIHG  OF  ZECHARIAH 

Zechariah  and  his  Predecessors.  Zechariah  differs 
widely  from  the  prophets  who  preceded  him  in  three 
points:  (i)  in  the  emphasis  which  he  places  upon 
visions  as  a  means  of  divine  communication;  (2)  in 
the  apocalyptic  symbolism  that  enters  into  the  visions ; 


262      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

(3)  in  the  large  place  occupied  by  angelic  mediation 
in  his  intercourse  with  Jehovah.  The  first  two  concern 
chiefly  the  form  of  revelation;  only  the  last  may  be 
considered  an  element  in  his  teaching. 

Angels  in  Zech.  1-8.  In  Zech.  1-8  we  have  in 
embryo  some  of  the  ideas  which  are  found  in  a  fuller 
stage  of  development  in  the  later  Jewish  and  New 
Testament  angelology.  Here  we  find  also  the  beginning 
of  the  tendency  so  widespread  in  the  later  Judaism 
to  look  upon  Jehovah  as  too  sacred  to  come  into  direct 
contact  with  human  beings.  Even  prophecy  seems  to 
have  lost  in  a  measure  its  sense  of  immediate  com- 
munion with  God.  The  prophet  receives  his  instruc- 
tion through  an  angel,  who  acts  as  intermediary, 
interpreter,  and  guide.  Angels  appear  in  the  unfolding 
of  the  visions,  they  carry  forward  the  events  symbol- 
ized, and  they  are  active  participants  in  the  working 
out  of  human  history.  Here  also  is  used  for  the  first 
time  the  noun  "Satan."  With  Zechariah  the  word  is 
not  yet  a  proper  name;  a  literal  translation  of  the 
phrase  in  3.  i  is  "the  Adversary"  (so  margin  R.  V.); 
it  becomes  a  proper  name  only  in  i  Chron.  21.  i ;  but 
the  adversary  of  Zechariah  is  closely  related  to  the 
adversary  who  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  to  Satan — now  a  proper  name — in  i 
Chron.  21.  i,  and  to  the  Satan  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Unique  Place  of  the  Temple.  From  beginning  to  end 
Zechariah  pleads  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  house  of 
Jehovah,  and  his  sublimest  promises  center  around  the 
completed  temple.  With  him  the  rebuilding  of  the 
dwelling  place  of  Jehovah  is  an  indispensable  con- 
dition of  the  arrival  of  the  Messianic  era.     "As  the 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  263 

commencement  of  the  judgment  formerly  showed  it- 
self when  the  glory  of  Jehovah  was  seen  by  Ezekiel  to 
forsake  the  temple,  so  upon  the  day  when  Jehovah 
once  more  makes  his  abode  with  his  people  all  the 
distress  of  the  time  shall  com.e  to  an  end;  in  short, 
this  dwelling  of  Jehovah  in  the  temple  is  the  sine  qua  non 
of  the  dawn  of  the  Messianic  age."  This  high  estima- 
tion of  the  priesthood  and  the  temple,  and  so  of  the 
externals  of  religion,  is  not  the  outgrowth  of  lower 
spiritual  conceptions,  but  rather  of  a  clear  appreciation 
of  the  needs  of  the  hour.  The  Jews  had  not  yet  reached 
the  stage  of  religious  and  spiritual  development  when 
they  could  afford  to  discard  forms  and  symbols;  they 
still  needed  the  temple  as  a  symbol  of  the  presence 
of  Jehovah.  Besides,  in  an  age  when  religion  was 
the  only  bond  that  united  the  heterogeneous  elements 
in  the  postexilic  community,  it  was  needed  as  a 
common  place  of  worship.  Continued  existence  with- 
out a  temple  would  have  resulted,  humanly  speaking, 
in  the  loss  of  true  religion  to  the  world.  The  fullness 
of  time,  when  people  would  worship  Jehovah  "neither 
in  this  mountain  nor  in  Jerusalem,"  but  everywhere 
in  spirit  and  in  truth,  had  not  yet  arrived. 

The  Messianic  Hope.  Of  importance  are  also  the 
Messianic  hopes  of  Zechariah.  The  temple  plays  a 
prominent  part,  but  only  as  an  earnest  of  better 
things  to  come;  the  high  priest  and  his  fellows  receive 
honor,  but  only  as  signs  of  one  greater  than  they,  of 
"Branch."  Around  the  person  of  this  Branch  center 
the  Messianic  hopes  of  Zechariah.  It  is  he  who  shall 
complete  the  building  of  the  temple,  who  shall  have 
constant  access  to  Jehovah,  who  shall  reign  in  peace 
forever.     The  prophet  identifies  Branch  with  Zerub- 


264      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

babel  (4.  7);  in  his  person,  therefore,  a  descendant  of 
David  comes  once  more  to  the  front,  destined  to 
occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  kingdom  of  God. 
The  blessings  of  the  Messianic  age  will  be  both  temporal 
(for  example,  i.  17;  2.  4,  5)  and  spiritual  (for  example, 
2.  10;  3.  9);  they  will  be  enjoyed  primarily  by  the 
Jews,  but  not  by  them  exclusively.  True,  some  of 
the  nations  are  destined  to  be  "a  spoil  to  those  that 
served  them,"  but  the  prophet  also  anticipates  the 
conversion  of  some  outsiders:  "And  many  nations  shall 
join  themselves  to  Jehovah  in  that  day,  and  shall  be 
my  people"  (2.  11). 

The  Essential  Requirements  of  Jehovah.  Zechariah 
has  been  accused  of  being  the  teacher  of  a  heartless 
and  unspiritual  formalism.  An  unbiased  study  of  his 
prophecies  proves  this  accusation  to  be  false,  for  he 
teaches  plainly  that  forms  and  ceremonies  are  not 
essential  elements  of  true  religion  (compare  chapters 
7,  8).  His  conception  of  the  requirements  of  Jehovah 
is  indicated  in  these  words:  "Speak  ye  every  man  the 
truth  with  his  neighbor;  execute  the  judgment  of 
truth  and  peace  in  your  gates;  and  let  none  of  you 
devise  evil  in  your  hearts  against  his  neighbor;  and 
love  no  false  oath :  for  all  these  are  things  that  I  hate, 
saith  Jehovah"  (8.  16,  17).  He  values  forms  and 
ceremonies  only  as  means  of  grace,  by  the  use  of  which 
men  may  be  led  into  purer  and  nobler  lives.  His 
conception  of  the  Messianic  age  includes  the  removal  of 
sin  from  land  and  people  (chapters  3  and  5). 

The  Ultimate  Triumph  of  Israel  Dependent  on  Di- 
vine Cooperation.  Another  truth  constantly  empha- 
sized by  Zechariah  is  that  the  ultimate  triumph  is 
dependent  on  the  divine  cooperation     "Not  by  might, 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  265 

nor  by  power,  but  by  my  Spirit,  saith  Jehovah  of 
hosts"  (4.  6).  These  words  have  reference  primarily 
to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  but  the  prophet  insists 
from  beginning  to  end  that  the  success  and  well-being 
of  the  people  depends  upon  the  divine  favor  and 
cooperation. 

THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  ZECHARIAH  9-14 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  many  scholars,  conservative 
and  advanced,  consider  chapters  9-14  not  the  work  of 
Zechariah,  the  contemporary  of  Haggai,  it  seems  best 
to  study  these  chapters  separately.  Whatever  their 
exact  date,  they  undoubtedly  presuppose  an  historical 
situation  within  Jerusalem  and  without  different  from 
that  which  gave  rise  to  the  utterances  embodied  in 
chapters  1-8.  "Zech.  1-8  picture  the  whole  earth  at 
peace,  which  was  true  at  least  of  all  Syria;  they  por- 
tend no  danger  to  Jerusalem  from  the  heathen,  but 
describe  her  peace  and  fruitful  expansion  in  terms 
most  suitable  to  the  circumstances  imposed  upon  her 
by  the  sohd  and  clement  policy  of  the  earlier  Persian 
kings.  This  is  all  changed  in  9-14.  The  nations  are 
restless;  a  siege  of  Jerusalem  is  imminent,  and  her 
salvation  is  to  be  assured  only  by  much  war  and  a 
terrible  shedding  of  blood.  We  know  exactly  how 
Israel  fared  and  felt  in  the  early  sections  of  the  Persian 
period;  her  interest  in  the  politics  of  the  world,  her 
feelings  toward  her  governors,  and  her  whole  attitude 
toward  the  heathen  were  not  at  that  time  those  which 
are  reflected  in  Zech.  9-14."  Some  hold  that  the 
chapters  are  preexilic,  others  that  they  are  post- 
exilic;  on  the  whole,  the  latter  is  the  more  probable, 
and  in  the  postexilic  period,  a  date  not  earlier  than 
350  B.  C. 


266  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

CONTENTS  OF  ZECHARIAH  9-14 

Zech.  9-14  consists  of  various  oracles,  loosely  con- 
nected, dealing  for  the  most  part  with  events  leading 
up  to  the  final  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

Overthrow  of  the  Nations,  the  Messianic  King,  and 
his  Victories,  9.  i — 10.  2.  The  section  opens  with 
a  threat  against  the  nations  surrounding  Palestine.  A 
judgment  proceeding  from  the  north  or  northeast 
will  fall  in  succession  upon  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Philistia  (9.  1-7).  While  these  nations  are  wiped  out 
Jerusalem  will  rest  in  safety  (8).  After  the  overthrow 
of  these  nations  the  Messianic  king  will  appear,  to 
establish  his  throne  in  Zion  and  reign  in  righteousness 
and  peace  over  the  redeemed  remnant  (9,  10).  The 
advent  of  the  Messianic  king  will  be  followed  by  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews  still  in  exile  (11,  12)  and  the 
overthrow  of  the  hostile  nations  through  the  restored 
exiles  (13,  14).  The  struggle  will  be  bloody,  but 
Jehovah  will  deliver  his  people  and  exalt  them  to 
glory  (15-17).  The  prophet  is  not  content  with 
anticipating  the  glories  of  the  future ;  he  is  anxious  to 
transform  the  present;  hence  he  exhorts  his  con- 
temporaries to  turn  even  now  to  Jehovah,  the  giver 
of  every  good  and  perfect  gift  (10.  1,2). 

Restoration  of  the  Jews  and  the  Overthrow  of 
the  Hostile  Nations,  10.  3— n.  3-  The  restoration 
of  the  Jews  and  the  overthrow  of  the  hostile  nations 
is  pictured  once  more  in  10.  3 — 11.  3.  When  the  Jews 
came  into  the  power  of  hostile  nations  they  were 
governed  by  cruel  foreign  rulers.  But  a  change  is 
about  to  take  place,  for  Jehovah  will  cut  ofT  the  bad 
shepherds  and  deliver  the  oppressed  flock  (3).  The 
survivors  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  will  be  transformed 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  267 

into  mighty  men  (4-7),  and  Jehovah  will  bring  them 
back  from  Assyria  and  Egypt  to  dwell  in  their  own 
land  (8-12),  where  they  may  rejoice  over  the  wonder- 
ful deliverance,  while  the  hostile  powers  wail  and 
lament  over  their  own  complete  undoing  (11.  1-3). 

The  Good  Shepherd  and  the  Foolish  Shepherd,  11. 
4-17;  13.  7-9.  In  II.  4ff.  the  prophet  takes  a  look 
into  the  past.  In  the  form  of  an  allegory  he  describes 
Jehovah's  dealings  with  his  people,  the  ingratitude  of 
the  latter,  the  divine  wrath,  and  the  resulting  judg- 
ment. Jehovah  appointed  a  good  shepherd  to  give 
protection  and  care  to  the  flock,  which  Jehovah  had 
determined  to  deliver  from  its  oppressors  (4-6),  but 
the  flock  was  so  unappreciative  (7,  8)  that  finally 
the  shepherd  decided  to  discontinue  the  shepherding 
care  (9-14).  The  result  was  disastrous,  for  Jehovah 
gave  the  flock  into  the  hands  of  a  foolish  shepherd, 
who  not  only  neglected  the  sheep  but  abused  and 
destroyed  them  to  satisfy  his  own  lust  (15,  16).  This 
condition  will  not  continue  forever.  The  foolish  shep- 
herd will  be  slain,  and  though  a  large  part  of  the 
flock  will  be  cut  off  as  punishment  for  the  treatment 
accorded  to  the  good  shepherd,  one  third  will  be 
preserved,  purified,  and  restored  to  Jehovah's  favor 
(11.  17;  13.  7-9). 

Wonderful  Deliverance  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem, 
12.  1-9.  A  new  beginning  is  made  in  12.  i.  The 
remaining  chapters  of  the  book  deal  with  the  future 
of  Israel.  The  section  falls  naturally  into  two  parts, 
12.  I — 13.  6  and  14.  1-21;  chapter  13.  5-7  is  best 
understood  as  the  conclusion  of  11.  4-17.  The  first 
part  consists  of  three  divisions.  The  first  of  these 
(12.   1-9)  pictures  a  wonderful  deliverance  of  Judah 


268      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

and  Jerusalem.  The  prophet  beholds  the  nations  of  the 
earth  gathered  around  Jerusalem  to  besiege  it,  where 
Jehovah  smites  them  with  terror  (1-4).  When  the 
chieftains  of  Judah,  who  appear  to  have  remained 
inactive  during  the  early  part  of  the  struggle,  see  that 
Jehovah  fights  for  Jerusalem,  they  turn  their  weapons 
against  the  nations.  Jehovah  saves  the  tents  of  Judah 
first,  to  prevent  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  from 
magnifying  themselves  above  the  country  districts,  but 
he  delivers  Jerusalem  also  from  all  danger  (5-9). 

The  Penitential  Mourning  and  Subsequent  Fellow- 
ship with  Jehovah,  12.  10 — 13.  6.  From  the  triumph 
in  battle  the  prophet  turns  to  the  spiritual  blessings 
awaiting  the  people  of  God.  In  order  to  enjoy  these 
fully  they  must  first  of  all  turn  to  Jehovah  with  heart- 
felt repentance.  When  the  people  become  fully  con- 
scious of  the  depth  of  the  divine  mercy  manifesting 
itself  in  the  wonderful  deliverance  described  in  verses 
1-9,  they  will  be  seized  by  an  intense  sorrow  for  their 
past  sins  and  prostrate  themselves  in  deep  humility 
before  Jehovah  (10-14).  The  penitential  mourning 
and  supplication  will  not  be  in  vain.  Jehovah  will  be 
merciful,  remove  all  sin,  and  bring  about  a  complete 
moral  transformation  in  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem. 
Intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah  will  be  restored,  and 
everything  that  in  any  way  might  hinder  direct  com- 
munion with  him  will  be  swept  away;  even  prophecy, 
as  a  distinct  office,  will  be  abolished  (13.  1-6). 

Ultimate  Triumph  and  Glorification  of  Jerusalem, 
Chapter  14.  In  chapter  14  the  prophet  pictures  a 
new  conflict  between  Jerusalem  and  the  nations.  In 
12.  1-9  the  enemies  are  described  as  smitten  before 
they  are  able  to  capture  the  city;  here  the  threat  is 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  269 

that  "the  city  shall  be  taken,  and  the  houses  rifled, 
and  the  women  ravished ;  and  half  of  the  city  shall  go 
forth  into  captivity."  Only  then  Jehovah  will  appear 
for  the  salvation  of  a  remnant  and  the  setting  up  of 
his  kingdom  (1-7).  From  Jerusalem,  the  dwelling 
place  of  Jehovah,  two  streams  of  living  waters  will  go 
forth,  covering  the  whole  Icvnd  with  blessing  and  fer- 
tility (8-1 1).  The  nations  that  have  come  to  war 
against  Jerusalem  will  be  destroyed,  and  their  wealth 
will  be  given  to  the  Jews  (12-15).  Those  who  escape 
will  turn  to  Jehovah  in  true  worship ;  those  who  refuse 
to  do  so  will  be  smitt'^n  with  drought  (16-19).  Jeru- 
salem and  Judah  and  all  that  is  in  them  will  be  holy 
unto  Jehovah  (20,  21). 

TEACHING  OF  ZECHARIAH  9-14 

Exaltation  of  the  Jews.  Like  the  other  Old 
Testament  prophets,  the  author  of  these  chapters 
expects  the  restoration  and  exaltation  of  the  Jews. 
Chapters  9.  i — 11.  3  promise  the  restoration  and 
reunion  of  Judah  and  Israel  under  the  rule  of  the 
Messianic  king,  and  the  triumph  of  the  reunited  nation 
over  all  enemies.  However,  these  triumphs  can  be 
theirs  only  on  certain  conditions.  Their  rebellion  has 
frequently  robbed  them  of  Jehovah's  favor;  it  may 
do  so  again,  and  instead  of  immediate  salvation 
additional  judgment  may  be  their  fate.  Chapters  12 
and  14  picture  these  judgments,  but  there  is  always 
added  the  promise  that  in  the  end  the  Jews  will  triumph 
over  their  enemies  and  enjoy  abundant  temporal 
prosperity.  However,  this  is  only  one  phase  of  the 
author's  eschatological  hope.  In  addition,  rich  spiritual 
gifts  await  the  redeemed  remnant.    Uncleanness,  even 


270      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  spirit  of  uncleanness,  will  be  taken  away;  so  also 
everything  that  in  any  way  might  hinder  direct  per- 
sonal communion  with  Jehovah.  The  transformation 
will  be  so  complete  that  both  men  and  things  in  Judah 
and  Jerusalem  will  be  holy  unto  Jehovah.  That 
ceremonial  holiness  should  occupy  a  prominent  place 
in  these  pictures  cannot  appear  strange  when  we 
remember  that  all  postexilic  prophecy  lays  great  stress 
upon  the  externals  of  religion,  but  in  justice  to  the 
author  we  should  not  forget  that  he  is  not  content 
with  external  cleansing.  Chapter  13.  iff.  implies  a 
great  moral  and  spiritual  regeneration;  and  the  em- 
phasis which  he  places  upon  heartfelt  repentance 
(12.  10-14)  is  evidence  enough  to  show  that  this 
author,  like  the  preexilic  prophets,  has  a  clear  appre- 
hension of  the  essentials  of  true  Jehovah  religion  and 
of  the  divine  plan  of  redemption. 

Sovereignty  of  Jehovah.  The  author  of  chapters 
9-14  is  not  behind  the  prophet  Zechariah  in  recogniz- 
ing that  during  the  Messianic  era  Jehovah  will  be 
King  of  all  the  nations.  True,  Judah  and  Jerusalem 
will  enjoy  in  a  special  manner  the  divine  favor;  true, 
the  nations  will  suffer  terrible  disasters;  but  when  the 
last  conflict  is  over,  a  remnant  of  the  nations  will 
worship  the  King,  Jehovah  of  hosts  (14.  16-19). 
Jehovah  will  rule  in  the  midst  of  his  people,  with 
Jerusalem  as  the  center  of  his  realm,  and  unto  this 
center  many  nations  will  come,  saying,  "He  will  teach 
us  of  his  ways,  and  we  will  walk  in  his  paths:  for  out 
of  Zion  shall  go  forth  instruction,  and  the  word  of 
Jehovah  from  Jerusalem." 

The  Messianic  King.  The  person  of  the  Messianic 
king  appears  in  9.  9,  10.    The  description  of  his  person 


HAGGAI  AND  ZECHARIAH  271 

and  rule  is,  on  the  whole,  in  perfect  accord  with  the 
portrayals  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  is  righteous  and  peaceful,  and  his  sovereignty  will 
be  recognized  everywhere.  However,  two  new  features 
are  added,  "having  salvation"  and  "lowly."  The 
thought  of  the  first  seems  to  be  that  the  king  will 
enjoy  at  all  times  the  divine  help  and  favor,  so  that 
all  he  undertakes  will  prosper.  The  second  means  that 
he  will  be  of  lowly  estate,  and  so  better  able  to  sym- 
pathize with  those  in  similar  condition.  His  interest 
will  not  be  confined  to  the  noble  and  wealthy. 

The  Rejected  Shepherd.  The  parable  of  the  good 
shepherd,  who  was  rejected  by  the  people,  is  a  solemn 
warning  against  the  frustration  of  the  loving  purpose 
of  God  through  human  obstinacry.  It  was  the  obstinacy 
of  the  people  that  had  led  them  to  reject  the  shepherd 
and  had  caused  the  calamities  that  followed  the  rejec- 
tion. It  may  cause  even  greater  distress  and  disaster 
unless  the  prophet's  contemporaries  take  heed.  The 
promises  in  chapters  9  and  10  are  glorious.  Will  they 
be  realized?  All  will  depend  upon  the  attitude  of 
those  for  whom  the  blessings  are  intended.  The 
obstinacy  of  the  later  Jews  prevented  their  realization 
in  the  Jewish  community.  The  sublime  spiritual 
fulfillment  of  these  prophecies  was  ushered  in  by 
Jesus,  who,  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  divine  plan 
of  redemption,  suffered,  as  the  result  of  human  ob- 
stinacy, a  rejection  more  bitter  than  that  suffered  by 
the  good  shepherd  of  this  prophecy. 


CHAPTER  XII 
MALACHI 

THE  AUTHOR  OF  THE  BOOK 

The  Name  Malachi.  The  last  book  in  the  collection 
of  the  Minor  Prophets  and  in  the  entire  Old  Testa- 
ment is  assigned  to  Malachi  (i.  i).  By  the  second 
century  A.  D.  Malachi  had  come  to  be  generally  re- 
garded as  a  proper  noun,  the  name  of  the  author  of 
the  book,  but  before  that  date  the  Hebrew  word, 
which  means  literally  "my  messenger"  or  "my  angel," 
had  been  taken  by  many  as  a  title  of  the  author,  whose 
real  name,  it  was  assumed,  was  not  mentioned  at  all. 
For  a  long  time  Jewish  tradition  identified  the  author 
of  the  book  with  Ezra,  while  others  conjectured  that 
the  author  way  an  incarnate  angel.  The  question  has 
been  revived  in  more  recent  times,  some  holding  that 
Malachi  is  the  name  of  the  author,  some  that  the  book 
is  anonymous,  Malachi  being  introduced  into  the 
heading  from  3.  i,  where  the  same  Hebrew  word  is 
translated  "my  messenger."  Analogy  with  the  other 
prophetic  books  would  seem  to  favor  the  view  that 
the  name  prefixed  to  a  book  is  a  proper  name;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  interpretation  of  the  ancients  is  not 
without  weight. 

Character  of  the  Author.  Whoever  was  the  author 
of  the  Book  of  Malachi  or  whatever  his  name,  he  is 
worthy  to  be  called  a  "messenger  of  Jehovah."  He 
was  a  man  of  deep  convictions  bom  of  a  personal 
religious   experience   and   constant   communion   with 

372 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  273 

God,  a  man  with  deep  insight  into  the  needs  and 
shortcomings  of  his  contemporaries  and  into  the  mys- 
teries of  the  divine  love  and  purpose,  which,  he  declared, 
would  find  its  culmination  in  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  subsequent  to  the  awful  catastrophe 
of  the  day  of  Jehovah.  Following  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  great  predecessors,  this  prophet  declared,  with  no 
uncertain  sound,  the  will  of  Jehovah  to  a  priesthood 
and  a  people  that  had  forgotten  the  covenant  of  old. 
He,  like  the  other  prophets,  announced  the  certain 
and  awful  doom  of  the  faithless  and  the  exaltation 
and  glorification  of  the  faithful. 

THE  HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND  OF  THE  PROPHECY 

Date  of  the  Prophecy.  Internal  evidence  and  com- 
parison with  the  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  have 
convinced  all  scholars  that  the  activity  of  Malachi  is 
closely  connected  with  the  time  and  efforts  of  these 
two  reformers.  "The  last  chapter  of  canonical  Jewish 
history  is  the  key  to  the  last  chapter  of  its  prophecy." 
Ezra  came  from  Babylon  in  458,  Nehemiah  about  445 ; 
and  after  an  absence  at  the  Persian  court  the  latter 
made  a  second  visit  about  432.  Whether  Malachi 
prophesied  shortly  before  the  coming  of  Ezra  or  sub- 
sequent to  it,  perhaps  as  late  as  432,  in  connection 
with  the  second  visit  of  Nehemiah,  though  discussed 
for  many  years,  cannot  be  determined  with  absolute 
certainty.  Malachi,  like  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  saw  the 
need  of  the  hour,  and  sought  to  do  his  part  toward 
bringing  about  a  moral  and  spiritual  reformation. 
Whether  he  was  a  few  years  earlier  than  they  or  their 
contemporary  is  a  question  of  secondary  importance. 
That  they  cooperated  openly  may  be  doubted  in  view 


274      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  the  silence  of  the  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
concerning  such  cooperation. 

The  Political  Background.  Zechariah's  last  utter- 
ance is  dated  in  518;  the  temple  was  completed  and 
dedicated  in  516;  in  458  Ezra  came  to  Jerusalem,  and 
some  time  near  the  last  date  Malachi  arose  as  a  prophet 
of  Jehovah.  During  the  interval  between  516  and  458 
the  struggle  between  Greece  and  Persia  and  two  revolts 
against  Persian  supremacy  in  Egypt  took  place.  To 
what  extent  the  Jews  were  affected  by  these  move- 
ments we  do  not  know.  Herodotus  declares  that 
Syrians  from  Palestine,  which  might  include  Jews, 
served  in  the  army  of  Xerxes ;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  were  called  upon  to  furnish  supplies  for  the 
Persian  armies,  especially  in  the  wars  with  Egypt. 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  attitude  of  the  Persian 
court  seems  to  have  been  friendly,  and  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  during  the  greater  part  of  the  period  the 
Jews  bore  the  yoke  patiently.  The  two  exceptions, 
mentioned  in  Ezra  4.  6  and  4.  yff.,  may,  perhaps,  be 
traced  to  a  revival  of  their  Messianic  hopes.  Xerxes 
came  upon  the  throne  in  485 ;  only  a  short  time  before 
this  date  Egypt  had  revolted;  these  events  the  Jews 
may  have  connected  with  the  Messianic  utterances  of 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  the  revolt  in  Egypt  with  the 
shaking  of  the  nations  promised  in  Hag.  2.  7.  The 
second  manifestation  of  unrest  (Ezra  4.  yff.)  may  have 
been  connected  with  the  second  revolt  in  Egypt,  in 
462,  and  may  have  been  caused  by  similar  expectations. 
In  458  Ezra  the  scribe  came  from  the  east  with 
rich  presents  from  the  king  and  from  his  countrymen 
still  in  exile,  and  with  extraordinary  powers  and 
privileges.    He  was  accompanied  by  other  loyal  Jews, 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  275 

and  after  four  months'  journey  they  reached  Jerusalem. 
After  a  brief  period  of  activity  Ezra  disappears  from 
view,  and  he  is  not  heard  of  again  until  after  Nehemiah 
had  become  civil  governor  in  445.  After  rebuilding 
the  walls  of  the  city  Nehemiah  undertook  various 
social  and  religious  reforms,  in  which  he  had  the 
hearty  support  of  Ezra,  who  reappeared  as  suddenly 
as  some  years  previously  he  had  disappeared.  Some 
time  later  Nehemiah  was  recalled  to  the  Persian  court. 
When  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  in  432  he  found  that 
the  reforms  had  been  undone,  and  that  new  evils  were 
threatening  the  integrity  of  the  community.  Imme- 
diately he  set  about  to  rectify  all  these  abuses,  and 
with  an  account  of  the  new  reforms  the  narrative  in 
the  Book  of  Nehemiah  closes. 

MORAL  AND  RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 

Indifference  Caused  by  Disappointment.  Haggai 
and  Zechariah  labored  earnestly  to  counteract  the 
religious  indifference  which  had  grown  up  in  the  com- 
munity during  the  years  immediately  following  the 
return  from  Babylon.  They  succeeded  in  arousing 
sufficient  enthusiasm  in  the  people  to  complete  the 
temple;  but  as  the  causes  of  the  indifference  were  not 
removed,  it  ismot  strange  that  very  soon  the  enthu- 
siasm died  out  and  the  former  indifference,  with  its 
accompanying  evils,  reappeared.  The  glorious  expecta- 
tions of  the  preexilic  prophets  remained  unrealized, 
and  the  new  promises  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah  were 
.not  fulfilled.  The  nations  of  the  earth  were  not  shaken 
(Hag.  2.  6,  7),  and  though  the  revolts  in  Egypt  seemed 
to  give  promise  of  such  shaking,  in  the  end  Persia 
remained  supreme,  while  Judah   remained  subject  to 


276      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

foreigners.  The  glory  of  Solomon's  temple  was  not 
equaled,  much  less  surpassed  (Hag.  2.  9);  taxes  had 
to  be  paid  and  provision  furnished  to  the  Persian 
armies,  which  kept  the  people  poor.  Mai.  3.  pff. 
implies  that  harvests  had  again  failed  as  the  result 
of  drought  and  plagues  of  locusts,  which  was  in  direct 
contradiction  to  the  promise  of  Haggai  (2.  19). 

The  Rise  of  Skepticism.  In  consequence  of  these 
various  disappointments  many  in  the  nation  began  to 
ask,  Where  are  the  promises  made  to  the  fathers? 
What  has  become  of  the  divine  justice  (2.  17)?  What 
of  the  divine  interest  in  us?  But  if  Jehovah  does  not 
care,  why  should  we  continue  to  waste  our  offerings 
and  sacrinces  in  his  service  (3.  7-12)  ?  The  disappoint- 
ments mentioned  were  troublesome  enough,  but  those 
in  Judah  who  would  retain  faith  in  Jehovah  were 
confronted  by  another  perplexity.  According  to  the 
popular  conception  piety  should  be  rewarded  invariably 
with  prosperity,  impiety  with  adversity.  But  there 
grew  up  in  Jerusalem  during  the  first  half  of  the  fifth 
century  a  class  of  godless  nobles  who,  by  the  use  of 
unscrupulous  means,  accumulated  wealth  and  lived  in 
luxury  and  splendor  (3.  i3ff.),  and  again  the  question 
arose.  Where  is  the  God  of  justice?  Thus  the  people 
might  look  within  or  without,  and  comparing  present 
conditions  with  the  promises  of  their  prophets  they 
would  meet  grave  perplexities  and  problems  on  every 
hand.  Small  wonder  that  many,  who  perhaps  had 
never  attained  a  strong  living  faith,  gave  way  to  a 
temper  of  moroseness,  skepticism,  or  even  positive 
hostility  to  Jehovah. 

Neglect  of  the  Temple  Service.  The  moral  and 
religious  conditions  reflected  in  the  Book  of  Malachi 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  277 

and  in  the  portions  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  dealing 
with  the  same  period  were  the  outgrowth  of  this 
reHgious  indifference  and  skepticism.  The  first  ghmpse 
which  the  book  gives  us  (i.  6 — 2.  9)  reveals  the  neglect 
of  the  temple  worship  by  both  priests  and  people.  The 
priests  performed  their  offices  perfunctorily,  and  they 
showed  by  their  actions  that  their  heart  was  not  in 
their  work.  Anything,  the}^  thought,  was  good  enough 
for  Jehovah,  and  so  they  offered  the  lame  and  the 
blind  upon  the  altar.  They  considered  the  maintenance 
of  the  temple  service  too  costly  and  irksome.  By 
their  example  and  teaching  they  caused  the  people  to 
stumble,  until  all  alike  failed  to  render  to  Jehovah  the 
reverence  and  honor  due  to  his  name.  A  similar  unwill- 
ingness to  pay  the  proper  religious  dues  is  reflected  in 
3.  7-10,  where  the  prophet  condemns  the  people  for 
defrauding  Jehovah  by  the  withholding  of  tithes  and 
offerings. 

Mixed  Marriages  and  Divorces.  A  second  result 
of  the  spirit  of  indifference  and  skepticism  was  the 
dying  down  of  the  zeal  for  the  maintenance  of  Israel's 
distinct  and  separate  existence  as  the  people  of  Jehovah. 
An  evidence  of  this  is  seen  in  the  wide  prevalence  of 
mixed  marriages,  that  is,  marriage  alliances  of  Israel- 
ites with  women  of  the  surrounding  heathen  nations 
(2.  II,  12;  compare  Ezra  9.  iff.;  10.  iff.;  Neh.  13.  23ff.). 
Such  alliances  would  break  down  the  barriers  between 
the  Jewish  community  and  the  heathen  nations,  and 
would  open  the  door  for  the  introduction  of  heathen 
practices  and  beliefs,  which  in  the  end  might  affect 
very  seriously  the  purity  of  the  Jehovah  religion.  In 
some  cases  these  alliances  seem  to  have  been  preceded 
by  the  putting  away  of  a  Jewish  wife.     This  would 


278      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

have  been  impossible  had  the  Jews  been  fully  con- 
scious of  the  unique  relation  of  their  nation  to  Jehovah ; 
but,  with  faith  in  Jehovah  waning,  they  forgot  the 
duties  they  owed  to  one  another  as  members  of  the 
same  covenant  nation  (2.  10),  and  lightly  divorced 
their  Jewish  wives  to  make  room  for  others.  But  even 
where  divorce  was  not  followed  by  an  alliance  with 
a  foreign  woman,  the  divorce  itself  implied  a  disregard 
of  mutual  obligations,  and  this  in  turn  implied  a  wan- 
ing faith  in  Jehovah. 

The  Moral  DecUne.  The  decline  of  religious  fervor 
was  followed  by  a  moral  decline.  Sorcery,  adultery, 
and  false  swearing  were  common;  the  laborer,  the 
fatherless,  and  the  widow  were  oppressed  (3.  5;  com- 
pare Neh.  5). 

The  Faithful  Nucleus  in  the  Community.  It  must 
not  be  thought,  however,  that  none  escaped  the 
skepticism  and  the  corruption  that  followed.  The  very 
appearance  of  Malachi  shows  that  there  were  in  the 
community  those  who  retained  their  hold  on  God  and 
whose  faith  was  made  only  stronger  by  the  trials 
through  w^hich  they  passed  (3.  16).  They  had  the 
same  experiences  and  made  the  same  observations  as 
those  who  became  skeptics  and  evildoers,  but  "instead 
of  laying  the  blame  on  Jehovah  .  .  .  they  recognized 
in  Israel  itself  the  cause  of  the  disappointment.  It 
was  Israel's  faithlessness  and  indifference  that  now  as 
of  old  hindered  the  accomplishment  of  the  prophetic 
visions.  The  one  hope  of  their  fulfillment  lay  in  a 
more  strenuous  and  loyal  observance  on  Israel's  part 
of  the  moral  conditions  of  Jehovah's  covenant."  Out 
of  this  group  of  religious  zealots  arose  Malachi,  deter- 
mined to  arouse,  if  possible,  a  new  enthusiasm  and  a  new 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  ajg 

faith  in  those  who  were  rapidly  drifting  from  Jehovah 
and  his  law. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  MALACHI 

The  Book  of  Malachi  falls  naturally  into  three 
sections  of  unequal  length,  i.  6 — 2.  912.  10-16;  2.  17 — 
4.  3,  with  a  prologue,  i.  2-5,  and  an  epilogue,  4.  4-6, 

The  Love  of  Jehovah  for  Israel,  i.  2-5.  The 
prologue  (i.  2-5)  forms  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
appeals.  The  contemporaries  of  the  prophet  ques- 
tioned the  love  of  Jehovah,  because  the  bright  promises 
of  the  earlier  prophets  had  remained  unfulfilled. 
Malachi  meets  this  criticism  by  pointing  out  the  fatherly 
love  of  Jehovah  for  the  Hebrews  (2).  They  need  not 
go  far  to  find  evidences  of  the  divine  love.  Jacob 
and  Esau  were  brothers,  hence  one  would  naturally 
expect  their  descendants  to  be  treated  alike  by  God; 
but  what  contrasts  between  the  fortunes  of  the  two! — 
Israel,  after  many  ups  and  downs,  restored  to  its  old 
home,  there  to  remain  forever;  the  territory  of  Edom 
doomed  to  perpetual  desolation.  There  can  be  but  one 
reason  for  all  this — Jehovah  loved  Jacob  but  hated 
Esau  (3-5).  This  love  of  Jehovah  for  Israel,  the 
prophet  thinks,  should  be  the  motive  and  model  for 
Israel's  attitude  toward  him. 

Faithlessness  of  Priests  and  People,  i.  6-14.  The 
first  denunciation  (i.  6 — 2.  9)  is  directed  principally, 
though  not  exclusively,  against  the  priests.  Through- 
out the  entire  history  of  Israel  Jehovah  showed  him- 
self a  loving  father  and  kind  master;  this  would  seem 
to  entitle  him  to  the  people's  gratitude  and  reverence, 
but  they  fail  to  give  him  his  dues  (6),  as  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  fact  that  they  offer  to  Jehovah  gifts 
which  a  human  governor  would   reject  with   scorn 


28o      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

(7,  8).  No  wonder  that  Jehovah  refuses  to  listen  to 
their  prayers  (9).  It  would  be  far  better  to  close  the 
temple  and  extinguish  the  altar  fires  than  to  continue 
this  sort  of  service  (10).  The  service  rendered  to 
Jehovah  among  the  nations  is  preferable  to  that  of 
the  Jews,  for  it  is  pure  and  generous,  while  that  of 
the  Jews  is  corrupt  and  heartless:  the  offerings  are 
small,  the  sacrificial  animals  diseased  and  worthless, 
and  the  little  they  do  give  they  give  grudgingly  (i  1-13). 
Cursed  be  every  one  who  dares  to  insult  Jehovah  in 
this  manner  (14). 

Warning  Addressed  to  the  Faithless  Priests,  2.  1-9. 
If  the  priests  do  not  heed  the  warning  and  ren- 
der unto  Jehovah  the  service  acceptable  to  him 
he  will  send  his  curse  upon  them,  that  they  may 
understand  his  purpose  to  maintain  the  ancient  cove- 
nant with  Levi  (2.  1-4).  According  to  this  covenant 
Jehovah  promised  to  Levi  life  and  peace,  while  Levi 
promised  to  fear  Jehovah.  Both  parties  kept  the 
covenant  faithfully ;  Levi  served  God,  and  by  his  faith- 
fulness turned  many  to  righteousness  (5,  6).  Similar 
conduct  is  expected  of  all  the  priests  (7),  but  how  far 
short  of  the  ideal  do  they  come  (8)!  Therefore  dis- 
grace and  contempt  will  be  their  portion  (9). 

Condemnation  of  Mixed  Marriages  and  Divorces, 
2.  10-16.  In  2.  10-16  the  prophet  condemns  the 
people's  faithlessness  to  the  ancient  covenant  with 
Jehovah  as  shown  in  the  prevalence  of  mixed  marriages 
and  divorces.  Jehovah  is  the  father  of  all  Israel, 
which  implies  that  the  individual  Israelites  are  brothers 
and  sisters,  but  they  have  disregarded  the  obligations 
placed  upon  them  by  these  relations  (10).  To  prove 
the  accusation  the  prophet  calls  attention  to  two  wide- 


THE  PROPPIET  MALACHI  281 

spread  abuses:  (i)  mixed  marriages,  that  is,  marriages 
between  Jews  and  women  belonging  to  the  surround- 
ing heathenish  or  half-heathenish  nations  (11,  12); 
(2)  the  heartless  putting  away  of  Jewish  wives  by 
their  husbands  (13-15).  Jehovah  abominates  such 
conduct,  therefore  they  would  better  desist  from  it  (16). 
Indifference  and  Skepticism,  2.  17 — 4.  3.  In  2. 1 7  the 
reader  is  introduced  to  the  skeptics  of  the  postexilic  com- 
munity, who  had  lost  faith  in  Jehovah  and  his  word 
because  the  sinful  prospered  while  the  good  suffered.. 
From  these  inequalities  they  concluded  that  Jehovah 
was  taking  no  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  and 
they  doubted  that  he  would  ever  appear  in  judgment 
to  right  the  wrongs  (2.17).  To  this  complaint  Jehovah 
replies  that  he  will  suddenly  appear,  preceded  by  a 
messenger  who  will  prepare  his  way  (3.  i).  His  coming 
will  be  terrible  to  all  who  have  departed  from  the 
right,  for  he  will  come  like  a  refiner's  fire  to  bum  up 
the  dross  (2).  He  will  purify  the  priests  that  they 
may  again  offer  sacrifice  in  righteousness  (3,  4),  and 
he  will  sweep  away  from  the  nation  at  large  every- 
thing that  is  contrary  to  his  will  (5).  Since  the  skeptics 
doubted  the  interest  of  Jehovah  in  the  affairs  of  the 
nation,  they  saw  no  reason  why  they  should  continue 
to  offer  sacrifices  to  him.  In  3.  6-12  the  prophet 
condemns  this  neglect.  First  he  asserts  that  the 
charge  expressed  in  2.  17  is  groundless.  Jehovah  has 
not  changed,  but  he  cannot  manifest  himself  as  in 
days  gone  by,  because  their  attitude  toward  him  has 
undergone  a  change  (6).  They  cry  out  for  his  return 
to  them,  but  he  can  respond  only  if  they  return  to 
him  (7).  When  they  inquire  wherein  they  are  to 
return,  he  replies,  in  being  honest  in  the  payment  of 


282  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

their  tithes  and  offerings  (8).  If  they  do  this  they 
will  soon  discover  that  Jehovah  still  lives  and  can 
bless  them  with  abundant  prosperity  (9-12). 

In  3.  13  the  prophet  returns  to  the  inequalities  of 
life.  The  skeptics  complain  that  the  wicked  prosper, 
while  suffering  is  the  portion  of  those  who  fear  God 
(13-15).  They  are  informed  that  their  complaint  is 
unwarranted,  that  Jehovah's  eye  is  over  all,  and 
though  at  present  the  lot  of  the  pious  may  seem  hard, 
Jehovah  keeps  a  record  of  those  who  are  faithful,  and 
when  he  appears  in  his  temple  he  will  make  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  pious  and  the  wicked  (16-18). 
The  wicked  will  be  destroyed  root  and  branch  (4.  i), 
while  the  righteous  will  be  exalted  forever  (2,  3).  In 
this  wise,  the  prophet  argues,  Jehovah  will  prove 
himself  a  God  of  judgment  and  of  justice. 

Exhortation  to  Obey  the  Law  of  Moses,  4.  4-6. 
The  epilogue  (4.  4-6)  contains  an  exhortation  and  a 
promise.  The  hearers  and  readers  are  urged  to  lay 
to  heart  the  law  of  Moses,  for  only  thus  can  they 
hope  to  escape  the  terrors  of  the  day  of  Jehovah  (4). 
The  promise  of  3.  i  is  repeated,  that  a  messenger, 
here  called  Elijah,  will  come  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  coming  of  Jeho>'ah  Jiimself  (5).  The  last  verse  (6) 
explains  wherein  the  preparation  consists:  The  mes- 
senger will  attempt  to  convert  the  nation,  so  that  the 
terror  of  the  day  of  Jehovah  may  be  averted. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  MALACHI 

"Prophecy  within  the  Law."  The  Book  of  Malachi 
has  been  aptly  described  as  "Prophecy  within  the 
Law."  On  the  one  hand,  it  reaffirms  the  truths  taught 
by  the  great  preexilic  prophets,  such  as  the  fatherly 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  283 

love  and  care  of  Jehovah  for  Israel,  the  holiness  and 
righteousness  of  Jehovah,  the  terrible  judgment  upon 
the  wicked,  and  the  exaltation  of  the  righteous.  On 
the  other  hand,  unlike  the  earlier  prophetic  books,  it 
places  great  stress  upon  the  law  as  a  disciplinary  rule 
of  life;  its  lax  performance  receives  severe  condemna- 
tion, and  the  final  exhortation  of  the  book  is,  "Remem- 
ber the  law  of  Moses,  my  servant." 

Malachi*s  High  Regard  for  the  Law.  In  fairness 
to  Malachi  this  second  characteristic  must  not  be 
overemphasized  to  the  obscuring  of  the  former.  True, 
he  shared  with  the  other  religious  leaders  of  the  post- 
exilic  period  a  high  regard  for  the  law,  but  this  is  due 
not  so  much  to  lower  religious  conceptions  as  to  the 
fact,  which  every  careful  student  of  Hebrew  history 
in  the  days  of  Malachi  must  have  noticed,  that  after 
all  prophecy  had  failed  to  produce  the  permanent 
results  for  which  the  prophets  had  toiled  so  persist- 
ently. Generation  after  generation  they  had  sought  to 
create  a  pure  and  holy  nation,  but  after  the  lapse 
of  centuries  the  people  appeared  to  be  no  nearer  the 
ideal  than  at  the  beginning.  Consequently  the  question 
must  have  arisen  in  many  minds,  whether  the  method 
of  the  prophets  was  the  one  best  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  time,  whether  the  people  could  be  trusted  to 
apply  the  principles  of  the  prophetic  religion  to  the 
daily  life,  or  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  lay 
down  definite  rules  and  urge  the  people  to  observe 
these,  and  thus  avoid  the  lapses  of  the  past?  The  last 
question  was  answered  in  the  affirmative,  and  the 
legalism  of  the  postexilic  period  was  bom.  However, 
in  the  beginning  it  was  permeated  by  a  spirit  of  in- 
tense moral  earnestness;  the  exaggeration  of  the  letter 


284      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

was  a  later  development.  Malachi  was  a  prophet  just 
as  truly  as  were  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  but  unlike  these 
he  emphasized  the  embodiment  of  the  prophetic  spirit 
and  the  prophetic  principles  in  external  law. 

The  Fatherhood  of  Jehovah.  Though  the  principal 
points  in  Malachi 's  teaching  have  already  been  alluded 
to,  a  few  of  them  deserve  special  mention:  The  father- 
hood of  Jehovah.  Jehovah  has  manifested  a  fatherly 
interest  in  Israel  throughout  the  entire  history  of  the 
nation  (i.  2-5).  The  prophet  makes  this  fact  the  basis 
of  all  his  appeals.  Because  he  is  the  loving  father  of 
the  Jews,  he  has  a  right  to  claim  their  reverence  and 
affection  (i.  6) ;  because  he  loves  all  alike,  they  should 
show  a  brotherly  love  toward  one  another  (2.  10). 
But  his  love  can  manifest  itself  only  toward  the  good 
and  pious;  the  unrighteous  must  perish. 

The  Righteousness  of  Jehovah.  Malachi  empha- 
sizes the  justice  and  righteousness  of  Jehovah  as 
strongly  as  did  the  stem  Amos.  A  righteous  God 
demands  of  his  worshipers  a  pure  and  righteous 
service.  External  forms  of  worship  are  an  abomina- 
tion to  him  unless  they  are  prompted  by  true  devotion 
and  accompanied  by  a  holy  and  consistent  life  (i. 
6 — 2.  9).  He  would  rather  do  without  sacrifice  and 
offerings  than  be  compelled  to  receive  them  from  those 
who  neglect  the  weightier  matters.  He  desires  the 
payment  of  tithes,  but  only  as  the  practical  expression 
of  a  loving  faith  in  him.  Apparent  inequalities  in  life 
do  not  militate  against  the  divine  righteousness,  for 
in  due  time  Jehovah  will  prove  himself  a  righteous 
judge  by  rewarding  all  according  to  their  deeds  (3. 
16—4.  3). 

The  Brotherhood  of  Man.     The  brotherhood  of  man 


THE  PROPHET  MALACHI  285 

is  taught  in  the  Book  of  Malachi  not  in  the  broad 
New  Testament  sense,  but  only  as  applying  to  rela- 
tions within  the  Jewish  community.  The  individual 
Jews  are  related  to  one  another  as  brothers  and  sisters, 
and  this  relation  should  determine  their  treatment  of 
one  another.  Mixed  marriages  and  divorce  receive 
very  severe  condemnation,  because  they  are  sins 
against  this  principle  of  brotherhood ;  though  undoubt- 
edly the  prophet  was  prompted  also  by  the  fear  that 
these  practices  would  corrupt  the  religion  of  Jehovah. 

Jehovah  Worship  among  Other  Nations.  The  sig- 
nificance of  I.  II  has  been  overestimated.  It  would, 
indeed,  be  remarkable  to  find  an  Old  Testament 
prophet  broad-minded  enough  to  teach  that  the  worship 
of  heathen  nations  offered  to  different  deities  was  in 
reality  worship  of  Jehovah  under  various  forms. 
Though  that  is  not  the  thought  of  the  passage,  the 
recognition  that  any  worship  rendered  to  Jehovah 
among  the  nations  was  acceptable  to  him  was  a  long 
step  forward  toward  the  teaching  of  John  4.  2 1  ff. 

The  Messianic  Teaching  of  Malachi.  The  Messianic 
teaching  of  Malachi  is  very  simple.  The  establishment 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  will  be  preceded  by  the  day 
of  Jehovah,  a  day  of  sifting,  on  which  Jehovah  will 
appear  to  separate  the  righteous  from  the  wicked,  and 
a  day  of  terror,  on  which  he  will  execute  judgment 
upon  the  wicked  (3.  1-5;  3.  16 — 4.  3).  After  this 
crisis  the  pious  will  enter  upon  a  life  of  permanent 
prosperity  and  felicity.  The  Messianic  king  is  not 
mentioned;  Jehovah  himself  will  interfere  on  behalf 
of  his  people.  Malachi  introduces  the  person  of  a 
messenger,  Elijah  the  prophet,  who  will  be  sent  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  coming  of  the  judge  (3.  i). 


CHAPTER  XIII 
JOEL 

UNCERTAINTY  OF  THE  DATE  OF  JOEL 

Dates  Proposed.  Perhaps  no  other  book  in  the  Old 
Testament  has  been  assigned  to  so  many  different 
dates  as  the  Book  of  Joel.  Even  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  investigation  is  supposed  to  have  pro- 
ceeded on  scientific  principles,  scholars  have  differed 
regarding  its  date  by  a  space  of  more  than  five  cen- 
turies. In  other  words,  the  book  has  been  dated  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon, 
that  is,  before  900  B.  C,  and  as  late  as  the  fourth 
century  B.  C.  In  addition,  it  has  been  located  in 
every  century  between  these  extreme  dates. 

External  Evidence.  The  uncertainty  as  to  the  date 
of  Joel  is  due  to  the  absence  of  decisive  data  upon  the 
basis  of  which  definite  conclusions  may  be  reached. 
External  evidence,  the  most  satisfactory  kind  of  evi- 
dence, is  entirely  lacking,  unless  we  regard  as  external 
evidence  the  position  of  the  book  in  the  collection  of 
Minor  Prophets.  But  this  is  by  no  means  conclusive, 
for  it  is  generally  recognized  that,  while  in  the  main, 
perhaps,  intended  to  be  chronological,  the  arrangement 
of  the  Minor  Prophets  cannot  be  followed  implicitly 
when  a  question  of  date  is  under  consideration. 

Internal  Evidence.  It  is  chiefly  internal  evidence, 
therefore,  that  must  decide  the  question.  Here  be- 
long any  indications  of  the  historical  situation  in 
which  the  book  arose,  the  theological  ideas  expressed 

286 


THE  PROPHET  JOEL  287 

or  implied,  literary  parallels  with  other  Old  Testament 
writings  whose  dates  are  known,  and  linguistic  and 
stylistic  features.  This  evidence  must  be  examined 
very  carefully;  but  after  this  is  done  it  will  be  found 
that  the  data  presented  by  the  book  are,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  altogether  indecisive.  The  exceptions, 
especially  the  historical  references  in  3,  1-5,  which 
seem  to  presuppose  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  and 
the  subsequent  dispersion  of  the  Jews,  the  constant 
emphasis  on  the  more  external  elements  of  religion, 
and  some  of  the  linguistic  peculiarities,  favor  a  post- 
exilic  date.  To  determine  the  exact  date  during  this 
period  may  not  be  possible,  though  a  date  subsequent 
to  the  final  establishment  of  the  law  under  Nehemiah 
(444-432  B.  C),  perhaps  about  400  B.  C,  seems  the 
most  probable. 

THE  MESSAGE  OF  JOEL 

The  Prophet  Joel.  Of  the  personal  history  of  Joel 
nothing  is  known  beyond  what  may  be  gathered  from 
the  prophecy  itself.  His  message  centers  around 
Judah  and  Jerusalem;  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
refers  in  several  places  to  the  land  and  the  city  makes 
it  probable  that  his  home  was  in  southern  Palestine, 
perhaps  in  Jerusalem.  He  displays  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  temple  and  its  service,  of  the  priests  and  their 
duties,  but  he  himself  was  probably  not  a  priest. 

Occasion  of  Joel's  Utterances.  The  occasion  of 
Joel's  utterances  seems  to  have  been  a  threefold 
calamity,  locusts  (i.  4),  drought  (i.  16-18),  and  con- 
flagrations (i.  19,  20).  But  his  horizon  was  not 
limited  by  this;  on  the  contrary,  his  chief  interest 
centers  in  a  manifestation  of  Jehovah  still  in  the 
future,  yet  in  the  prophetic  conception,  near  at  hand, 


288      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

the  day  of  Jehovah;  and  throughout  the  entire  book 
this  day  is  kept  prominently  before  the  readers. 
Description    of    the    Plague   of    Locusts,    i.    1-20. 

The  Book  of  Joel  falls  naturally  into  two  parts.  In 
the  first  (i.  i — 2.  17)  judgment  receives  special  em- 
phasis; in  the  second  (2.  18 — 3.  21)  the  thought  of 
restoration  and  blessing  predominates.  The  first 
section  of  the  first  part  (i.  1-20)  deals  mainly  with 
the  distress  that  arouses  the  prophet's  emotions.  He 
begins  by  calling  attention  to  the  present  calamity, 
which  is  without  parallel  in  the  memory  of  even  the 
oldest  inhabitants.  The  whole  country  is  waste  and 
desolate  (i.  2-4).  The  awful  distress  leads  him  to 
call  upon  all  to  lament  (5-12),  because  all  luxuries 
are  cut  off  (5-7) ;  the  worship  of  Jehovah  has  suffered 
through  the  interruption,  or  threatened  interruption, 
of  the  meal  and  drink  ofTerings  (8-10),  and  the  means 
for  the  sustenance  of  life  are  cut  off  and  destroyed  by 
the  locusts  (11,  12).  But  the  present  calamity  is  only 
the  beginning  of  the  great  final  blow,  the  judgment  of 
the  day  of  Jehovah.  Is  there,  then,  no  escape?  Jeho- 
vah alone  can  save,  but  communion  with  him  is  at  an 
end,  or  is  at  least  threatened.  If,  however,  he  is 
approached  rightly  he  may  yet  have  mercy  (13,  14). 
The  prophet  is  so  earnest  in  his  appeal  because  he  sees 
looming  up  in  the  near  future  the  day  of  Jehovah  as 
destruction  from  the  Almighty  (15).  In  justification 
of  his  fear  the  prophet  calls  attention  once  more  to  the 
awful  condition  of  the  land,  and  closes  with  a  petition 
to  Jehovah  for  mercy  and  deliverance  (16-20). 

The  Plague  of  Locusts  the  Harbinger  of  the  Day 
of  Jehovah,  2.  1-17.  The  second  section  (2.  1-17) 
presents  the  thought  of  chapter  i  from  a  somewhat 


THE  PROPHET  JOEL  289 

different  viewpoint.  The  prophet,  starting  again  from 
the  present  unparalleled  calamity,  looks  upon  it  chiefly 
as  the  harbinger  of  the  day  of  Jehovah,  which  is  near 
at  hand  (2.  1-3).  In  the  succeeding  verses  he  presents 
a  vivid  word  picture  of  the  plague  of  locusts.  The 
appearance  is  "as  the  appearance  of  horses.  .  .  .  Like 
the  noise  of  chariots  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  do 
they  leap.  ...  At  their  presence  the  peoples  are  in 
anguish.  .  .  .  They  run  like  mighty  men;  they  climb 
the  wall  like  men  of  war.  .  .  .  They  leap  upon  the  city ; 
they  run  upon  the  wall ;  they  climb  up  into  the  houses ; 
they  enter  in  at  the  windows  like  a  thief"  (4-1 1). 
This  scourge  introduces  the  terrible  day  itself.  Though 
near  at  hand,  it  may  still  be  averted ;  and  once  more 
he  summons  all  to  repentance  (12-17). 

Restoration  of  the  Divine  Favor;  Destruction  of 
the  Nations,  Exaltation  of  the  Jews,  2.  18 — 3.  21. 
Though  not  expressly  stated,  it  is  implied  that  the 
prophet's  exhortation  was  heeded;  the  solemn  assem- 
bly was  held,  and  the  people  turned  to  Jehovah  in 
penitence,  whereupon  he  altered  his  purpose  (18).  In 
verse  19  Jehovah  is  introduced  as  replying  to  the 
petitions  of  the  penitent  people.  He  will  remove  the 
plague  of  locusts  and  restore  abundant  temporal 
prosperity  (20-26).  But  the  temporal  blessings  will  be 
far  surpassed  by  wonderful  spiritual  gifts,  the  presence 
of  Jehovah  in  the  midst  of  his  people  (27)  and  the 
outpouring  of  the  Divine  Spirit  upon  all  flesh  (28,  29). 
Although  temporarily  postponed,  the  day  of  Jehovah 
will  finally  come,  inaugurated  by  wonders  in  the 
heavens  and  on  the  earth.  Its  terrors,  however,  will 
not  fall  upon  the  penitent  Jews  (30-32),  but  upon  the 
nations  that  have  cruelly  wronged   the  "heritage  of 


290      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

Jehovah"  (3.  1-3).  Of  the  doomed  nations  Tyre, 
Sidon,  and  the  Philistines  are  singled  out  on  account 
of  special  hostility  to  Judah  (4-8).  The  nations  are 
challenged  to  muster  their  forces,  only  to  be  annihilated 
in  the  "valley  of  decision."  The  day  of  judgment 
upon  the  nations  will  be  one  of  triumph  for  Israel 
(9-16).  The  crisis  passed,  Jerusalem  will  be  holy,  and 
the  whole  land  will  be  blessed  with  extraordinary 
fertility,  while  Edom  and  Egypt  will  lie  waste  for- 
ever (17-21). 

THE  TEACHING  OF  JOEL 

The  Day  of  Jehovah.  The  teaching  of  Joel  centers 
around  the  day  of  Jehovah,  that  is,  the  great  future 
crisis  in  which  Jehovah  will  manifest  his  power  and 
majesty  in  the  destruction  of  his  enemies  and  the 
deliverance  of  those  who  trust  in  him.  Concerning 
this  day  he  teaches:  (i)  Its  approach  is  marked  by 
great  convulsions  and  extraordinary  phenomena  in  the 
sphere  of  nature  (2.  11,  30;  compare  also  his  inter- 
pretation of  the  plague  of  locusts).  (2)  The  character 
of  the  day  will  depend  upon  the  attitude  of  heart  and 
life  toward  Jehovah.  If  the  people  continue  in  re- 
bellion, it  will  be  a  day  of  terror  (i.  15;  2.  11),  but 
if  they  repent  it  will  be  a  day  of  blessing  and  exalta- 
tion (2.  12-14,  19-29).  (3)  When  the  day  finally 
breaks,  those  who  call  upon  the  name  of  Jehovah  will 
be  delivered  (2.  31),  but  the  enemies  of  Israel,  and  as 
such  of  Jehovah,  will  be  annihilated  (chapter  3). 

The  Outpouring  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  Joel  empha- 
sizes the  outpouring  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  Other 
prophets  announce  that  in  the  era  of  restoration  the 
Spirit  of  Jehovah  will  do  an  important  work,  but 
nowhere  else  do  we  find  a  promise  so  comprehensive, 


THE  PROPHET  JOEL  291 

the  fulfillment  of  which  would  mean  the  realization  of 
the  wish  of  Moses,  "Would  that  all  Jehovah's  people 
were  prophets,  that  Jehovah  would  put  his  Spirit  upon 
them!"  (Num.  11.  29.)  The  day  of  Pentecost  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  fulfillment;  and  since  then  it  has 
been  and  is  being  fulfilled  with  ever-increasing  fullness, 
and  in  a  manner  far  superior  to  the  expectation  of 
our  prophet. 

JoePs  Exclusiveness.  Joel  seems  to  have  a  narrower 
view  of  Jehovah's  redemptive  purpose  than  some  of 
the  other  prophets.  Apparently  he  sees  no  salvation 
for  the  nations.  Israel  is  to  be  saved  and  glorified, 
the  nations  are  to  be  judged  and  destroyed.  Even 
the  promise  concerning  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit 
upon  all  flesh  is  seen,  on  closer  study,  to  be  limited 
to  the  descendants  of  Abraham.  The  promise  is  to 
"your  sons  and  your  daughters,  .  .  .  your  old  men,  .  .  . 
your  young  men." 

But  it  would  not  be  proper  to  condemn  the  prophet 
for  this  seeming  exclusiveness.  It  was  this  very 
limitation  during  the  generations  following  the  return 
from  exile  that  made  possible  the  existence  of  the 
religion  of  Jehovah  in  unadulterated  form.  That 
Israel  remained  Israel  in  spite  of  the  attempts  of  the 
Samaritans  and  other  surrounding  nations,  in  spite  of 
the  influence  of  the  Persians,  "in  spite  of  the  Greek 
arms  and  the  Greek  mind,  was  due  to  the  legalism  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and  to  what  we  may  call  the 
narrow  enthusiasm  of  Joel."  That  a  later  generation 
failed  to  see  that  the  crisis  was  passed,  that  it  was 
time  to  "go  into  all  the  world"  and  spread  the  knowl- 
edge of  Jehovah  to  "every  creature";  that  an  illegiti- 
mate exaggeration  and  a  false  interpretation  of  the 


292      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

utterances  of  men  of  God,  like  our  prophet,  was  respon- 
sible for  the  rejection  by  the  Jews  of  the  Messiah  when 
he  actually  appeared  among  men,  surely  cannot  be 
made  a  basis  of  accusation  against  our  prophet. 

Jehovah's  Sovereignty.  Joel  is  silent  concerning  the 
person  of  the  Messianic  king.  In  the  final  crisis  it  is 
Jehovah  himself  who  interferes,  both  in  judging  the 
nations  and  in  delivering  the  faithful  Jews.  It  is  he 
who  in  his  own  person  will  rule  on  Zion:  "I  am  in  the 
midst  of  Israel"  (2.  27;  compare  3.  17,  21). 

Joel's  Attitude  toward  the  Externals  of  Religion. 
On  account  of  his  emphasis  of  the  externals  of  religion 
(i.  9,  13,  14;  2.  12-17)  Joel  has  sometimes  been  accused 
of  neglecting  entirely  the  weightier  matters.  Here, 
as  in  all  things,  we  must  guard  against  extremes.  That 
his  attitude  toward  sacrifice  is  not  that  of  Amos  5.  2 iff. 
or  Isa.  I.  I  iff.,  may  be  readily  admitted,  but  that  he 
entirely  lacked  interest  in  the  fulfillment  of  moral 
requirements  is  not  true.  For  he  promises  deliverance 
to  the  people  not  on  the  basis  of  painstaking  observance 
of  the  forms  of  religion,  but  only  on  the  basis  of  a 
"godly  sorrow  that  worketh  repentance  for  salvation" 
(compare  especially  2.  12,  13). 


CHAPTER  XIV 

JONAH  AND  DANIEL 

The  Books  of  Jonah  and  Daniel  are  not  prophetic 
books  in  the  same  sense  as  the  books  considered  in 
the  preceding  chapters.  The  latter  is  not  reckoned 
among  the  prophetic  books  in  the  Jewish  canon,  and 
the  former,  though  one  of  the  Minor  Prophets,  is 
called,  even  in  Jewish  tradition,  a  book  by  itself.  How- 
ever, since  the  English  Old  Testament  places  both 
among  the  prophetic  books,  they  must  be  considered, 
at  least  briefly,  in  a  book  on  Hebrew  prophecy  intended 
for  the  student  of  the  English  Bible.  Both  books 
raise  numerous  questions  the  discussion  of  which  lies 
outside  the  scope  of  this  work.  Anyone  interested 
in  these  questions — and  they  are  not  without  impor- 
tance for  an  adequate  appreciation  of  the  books — may 
find  a  full  discussion  of  the  critical  questions  raised 
by  the  Book  of  Jonah  in  the  author's  Commentary  on 
the  Minor  Prophets;  the  Book  of  Daniel  receives 
adequate  treatment  in  C.  M.  Cobem's  Commentary  on 
Ezekiel  and  Daniel  (in  the  Whedon  series),  and  in 
S.  R.  Driver's  Commentary  on  Daniel  (in  the  Cam- 
bridge Bible  series). 

JONAH 

CONTENTS  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  JONAH 

The    Hero    of    the  Book  of  Jonah.    The  Book  of 

Jonah  centers  around  Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai  (i.  i). 
A  prophet  bearing  the  same  name  is  mentioned  in 
2  Kings  14.  25,  and  since  the  two  names  are  found 
nowhere  else  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is  exceedingly 

393 


294      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

probable  that  the  Jonah  of  2  Kings  14.  25  and  the  hero 
of  this  little  book  are  identical. 

Jonah's  Commission,  Disobedience,  Punishment,  i. 
1-16.  The  Book  of  Jonah  narrates  certain  incidents 
connected  with  Jonah's  commission  to  preach  in 
Nineveh.  The  narrative  opens  with  an  account  of 
Jonah's  commission  (i,  i,  2).  Unwilling  to  obey,  he 
decided  to  flee  "from  the  presence  of  Jehovah";  he 
went  to  Joppa  and  embarked  for  Tarshish  in  vSpain  (3). 
Soon  a  great  tempest  arose,  which  threatened  to  de- 
stroy the  ship  (4).  The  terrified  sailors  attempted  to 
save  the  vessel,  but  the  danger  only  increased.  Mean- 
while Jonah  was  asleep.  Finally  he  was  aroused  by 
the  captain,  who  implored  him  to  pray  to  his  God  for 
help.  He  did  so,  but  no  relief  came  (5,  6).  Then  the 
sailors,  convinced  that  the  storm  was  due  to  the  anger 
of  a  deity  against  some  one  on  board,  decided  to  cast 
the  lot  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  the  guilty  one. 
It  fell  upon  Jonah,  who  then  made  a  confession,  and 
urged  them  to  cast  him  overboard  (7-12).  At  first 
they  hesitated,  but  finally  they  cast  him  out,  and 
immediately  the  storm  ceased  (13-15).  As  a  result 
the  men  recognized  that  the  God  of  Jonah  was  the 
true  God,  and  they  offered  sacrifice  to  him  (16). 

Jonah's  Prayer  and  Deliverance,  i.  17 — 2.  10. 
Jonah  did  not  perish,  for  a  big  fish  swallowed  him, 
in  whose  belly  he  remained  for  three  days  (i.  17). 
At  the  end  of  that  period  he  was  cast  forth  upon  the 
dry  land  (2.  10).  While  in  the  fish's  belly  he  offered 
a  prayer  consisting  of  thanksgiving  for  deliverance 
wrought  and  a  promise  to  remain  forever  loyal  to  his 
God,  because  he  alone  can  save  (2.  1-9). 

Jonah's    Preaching    in    Nineveh   and    its    Effects, 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  295 

Chapter  3.  After  Jonah's  deliverance  from  this  peril 
Jehovah  again  commanded  him  to  go  to  Nineveh;  and 
this  time  the  prophet  obeyed  the  call.  When  he  had 
found  a  suitable  place  he  delivered  the  message,  "Yet 
forty  days,  and  Nineveh  shall  be  overthrown"  (3.  1-4). 
The  effect  of  the  preaching  was  immediate;  king  and 
people  gave  evidence  of  sincere  repentance ;  whereupon 
Jehovah  determined  to  withhold  the  judgment  (5-10). 
Jonah's  Complaint  and  Rebuke  by  Jehovah, 
Chapter  4.  This  displeased  Jonah,  and  he  complained 
bitterly  because  Jehovah  showed  mercy  to  the  Nine- 
vites ;  and  finally  he  prayed  that  Jehovah  might  take 
his  life  (4.  1-3).  Jehovah  rebuked  him  gently,  and 
afterward  taught  him  by  the  miraculous  growth  and 
destruction  of  the  "gourd"  the  absurdity  of  his  com- 
plaint and  the  justice  of  the  divine  mercy  (4-1 1). 

THE   TEACHmG   OF  THE   BOOK   OF   JONAH 

Peculiarity  of  the  Book  of  Jonah.  The  contents  as 
just  outlined  show  the  difference  between  the  Book 
of  Jonah  and  the  other  books  called  prophetic  by 
the  Jews.  All  the  others  record  chiefly  prophetic 
utterances,  though  sometimes  embodying  brief  narra- 
tives of  events ;  the  Book  of  Jonah,  on  the  other  hand, 
records  a  prophet's  work  and  experiences,  giving  little 
space  to  his  utterances. 

Purpose  and  Aim  of  the  Book.  A  book  of  this 
character  would  seem  to  find  its  most  natural  place 
in  the  third  division  of  the  Jewish  canon,  among  the 
Writings;  so  that  its  present  position  rather  favors 
the  conclusion  reached  by  the  majority  of  modem 
scholars  upon  the  basis  of  a  study  of  numerous  facts 
presented  by  the  book  itself,  that  the  book — whatever 


296      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

historical  material  it  may  embody — is  primarily  not 
historical  but  prophetic.  In  other  words,  it  was  not 
written  to  give  information  concerning  the  prophet 
Jonah,  but,  as  the  product  of  a  prophetic  mind,  for 
the  purpose  of  teaching  a  great  prophetic  truth.  This 
didactic  purpose  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  any  attempt 
to  interpret  the  book  and  its  teaching. 

The  Central  Truth  Taught  in  the  Book.  What, 
then,  is  the  chief  lesson  of  the  Book  of  Jonah?  Cer- 
tainly it  is  possible  to  point  out  several  truths  taught 
and  emphasized;  nevertheless,  there  is  one  central  truth 
that  "runs  like  a  red  thread  through  the  whole  and  at 
last  becomes  a  knot  whose  unloosing  in  4.  10,  11  forms 
the  glorious  finale."  This  truth  is  the  universality  of 
the  divine  plan  of  redemption.  Nowhere  else  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  such  continued  stress  laid  upon  the 
fatherhood  of  God,  embracing  in  its  infinite  love  the 
whole  human  race.  The  Book  of  Jonah  is  indeed  a 
"missionary  book."  teaching  that  God  does  not  wish 
that  "any  should  perish,  but  that  all  should  come  to 
repentance."  Some  of  the  postexilic  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament  indicate  that  there  was  growing  among 
the  Jews  a  narrow,  exclusive  tendency,  which  produced 
the  idea  that  salvation  was  for  the  Jews  only,  an  idea 
against  which  early  Christianity  had  to  battle  with 
all  her  might.  To  counteract  this  spirit  of  exclusive- 
ness  is  the  aim  of  the  Book  of  Jonah;  to  show  that 
the  belief  that  Jehovah  would  save  only  the  Jews  and 
destroy  all  other  nations  was  an  unwarranted  assump- 
tion. "The  national  limits  of  the  old  covenant  are 
here  wondrously  broken  through;  the  entire  heathen 
world  opens  as  a  mission  field  to  the  messengers  of 
Jehovah.     Thus  the  book,  with  its  wide-hearted  out- 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  297 

look  on  God's  ways,  and  the  sharp  criticism  of  the 
selfish  spirit  of  the  Jewish  people,  as  a  didactic  work, 
is  itself  a  miracle  in  the  literature  of  this  people." 
No  one  but  a  prophet,  filled  with  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah, 
could  have  written  this,  the  most  Christian  of  all 
Old  Testament  books. 

Details  of  Allegorical  Interpretation.  This  great 
lesson  is  taught  in  the  form  of  a  parable  or  allegory, 
of  which  Jonah  is  the  central  figure.  According  to 
one  view,  which  is  held  by  many,  Jonah  symbolizes 
the  nation  Israel.  Israel  had  received  a  divine  com- 
mission to  make  known  Jehovah  to  all  the  earth  (Isa. 
42.  5-9;  Gen.  12.  3;  compare  Jonah  i.  i,  2);  but  Israel 
was  disobedient  and  failed  to  carry  out  the  divine 
purpose  (Isa.  42.  19-24;  compare  Jonah  i.  3,  4),  and 
in  consequence  was  swallowed  up  by  the  "monster" 
(Jer.  51.  34;  compare  Jonah  i.  17).  In  exile  Israel 
turned  to  Jehovah  (that  the  exile  would  have  this 
effect  is  stated  again  and  again  in  the  prophetic  writ- 
ings; compare  Jonah  2.  iff.);  then  Israel  was  delivered 
from  the  "monster"  (Jer.  51.  44;  Ezra  i.  iff.;  compare 
Jonah  2.  10).  The  duration  of  Israel's  judgment  is 
represented  by  Hosea  as  lasting  three  days  (Hos.  6.  2; 
compare  Jonah  i.  17). 

While  the  exile  brought  the  Israelites,  in  some 
measure,  to  their  senses,  they  were  not  entirely  cured. 
Their  mission  was  not  revoked ;  it  remained  their  duty 
to  carry  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth.  But  Israel  remained  silent.  There  were  many 
who  were  thinking  of  the  nations  as  doomed;  they 
were  displeased  because  the  threats  of  the  preexilic 
prophets  remained  unfulfilled.  To  teach  such  the  wick- 
edness of  their  attitude  is  the  aim  of  chapters  3  and  4. 


298      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

This  may  be  the  correct  view.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  those  who  beheve  that  the  author  has  in 
mind  only  the  unspiritual  IsraeHtes  of  the  postexiHc 
period,  and  that  the  purpose  of  the  book  is  to  convince 
these  of  the  iniquity  of  their  selfish  exclusiveness,  and 
to  give  them  a  more  adequate  vision  of  the  divine 
purpose.  In  this  case  Jonah  would  represent  not  the 
whole  nation,  but  only  the  unspiritual  portion  of  the 
postexilic  community.  But  whatever  the  difference  of 
opinion  concerning  the  interpretation  of  certain  de- 
tails, the  chief  lesson  of  the  book  remains  the  same, 
and  gives  to  it  a  unique  and  sublime  place  among  the 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Date  of  the  Book  of  Jonah.  If  the  preceding 
paragraphs  interpret  correctly  the  teaching  of  the  book, 
its  origin  during  the  period  after  the  exile  becomes 
very  probable.  This  conclusion  is  supported  by  the 
internal  evidence  presented  by  the  book  itself.  To 
fix  the  exact  point  of  time  during  that  period  is  more 
difficult.  However,  the  character  of  its  teaching  makes 
it  probable  that  it  was  written  not  earlier  than  the 
reforms  under  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  which  were  to 
some  extent  responsible  for  the  rise  of  the  spirit  of 
exclusiveness  condemned  in  the  book.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  cannot  be  later  than  200  B.  C,  when  the 
prophetic  canon  was  completed.  Hence  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  book  originated  some  time  between  400 

and  250  B.  C. 

DANIEL 

THE  BOOK  OF  DAITIEL 

Place  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  among  the  Writings. 

According  to  the  common  grouping  of  the  books  in 
the  English  Old  Testament  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  299 

last  of  the  socalled  Major  Prophets.  The  Jews,  how- 
ever, place  the  book  in  the  third  division  of  their 
canon,  among  the  Writings.  If  the  book  was  written, 
as  is  now  quite  generally  thought,  during  the  Maccabean 
troubles,  subsequent  to  170  B.  C,  this  fact  in  itself 
would  be  a  sufficient  explanation  of  its  position  among 
the  Writings,  for  the  prophetic  canon  was  undoubtedly 
completed  by  200  B.  C.  Those  who  believe  that  the 
book  originated  during  the  period  of  exile  account  for 
this  position  in  various  ways.  Some  hold  that  it  is 
due  simply  to  an  error  of  the  early  Jews ;  others,  that 
the  apocalyptic  character  of  the  book  prevented  it  from 
taking  rank  among  the  prophets;  still  others  insist 
that  at  one  time  it  was  one  of  the  prophets,  but  that 
subsequently  to  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era  the 
learned  rabbis,  prompted  in  part  by  their  attitude 
toward  Jesus,  "degraded  Daniel  from  the  prophetic 
rank  and  put  his  book  into  the  Hagiographa." 

Chief  Characteristics  of  Jewish  Apocalyptic  Lit- 
erature. The  Book  of  Daniel  belongs  to  the  apoc- 
alyptic literature.  Apocalyptic  elements  are  found 
also  in  other  Old  Testament  writings,  notably  in 
Ezekiel  and  Zechariah,  but  Daniel  is  the  principal 
representative  of  this  kind  of  literature  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  has  exercised  a  very  marked  influence 
upon  subsequent  writings  both  Jewish  and  Christian. 
The  apocalyptic  literature  may  be  regarded  as  the 
latest  form  of  prophetic  writing  among  the  Hebrews. 
Like  the  prophet,  the  apocalyptic  writer  seeks  to  set 
forth  the  character,  will,  and  purpose  of  God,  as  also 
the  nature  and  laws  of  his  kingdom.  But  there  is  a  vast 
difference  between  the  two  in  their  attitude  toward 
their  own  day  and  generation.     Says  R.  H.  Charles, 


300      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

one  of  the  chief  authorities  among  English-speaking 
scholars  on  apocalyptic  literature:  "Prophecy  still  be- 
lieves that  this  world  is  God's  world,  and  that  in  this 
world  his  goodness  and  truth  will  yet  be  justified. 
Hence  the  prophet  addresses  himself  chiefly  to  the 
present  and  its  concerns,  and  when  he  addresses  him- 
self to  the  future,  his  prophecy  springs  naturally  from 
the  present,  and  the  future  which  he  depicts  is  regarded 
as  in  organic  connection  with  it.  The  apocalyptic 
writer,  on  the  other  hand,  almost  wholly  despairs  of 
the  present;  his  main  interests  are  supramundane." 
As  a  result  the  apocalyptic  literature  dwells  more 
especially  upon  the  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
the  coming  age.  Hence  its  name,  "apocalyptic,"  that 
is,  the  literature  that  "makes  known  what  is  hidden" 
from  the  eyes  of  common  men.  Closely  connected 
with  this  hope  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  God  are  two 
other  thoughts,  that  are  made  very  prominent  in 
Jewish  apocalyptic  writings,  namely,  (i)  the  idea  of 
a  world  judgment,  w^hich  will  mark  the  downfall  of 
evil  and  the  exaltation  of  right,  and  (2)  the  hope  of  a 
resurrection  from  the  dead,  so  that  even  those  who 
have  departed  may  receive  their  proper  dues. 

Authorship  and  Date  of  the  Book  of  Daniel.  The 
ancient  Jewish  opinion  and  the  prevailing  Christian 
view  until  quite  recent  times  was  that  Daniel,  who 
lived  in  exile  during  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  was  the 
author  of  the  whole  book.  The  first  to  attack  the 
authorship  of  Daniel  was  the  Neo-Platonist  Porphyry, 
who  died  in  303  A.  D.,  but  he  had  no  followers  among 
Christians.  After  the  period  of  the  Reformation  ques- 
tions were  again  raised,  and  since  the  last  quarter  of 
the  eighteenth  century  an  ever-increasing  number  of 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  301 

scholars  have  questioned  the  authorship  of  Daniel, 
until  it  may  be  said  that  the  old  view  has  been  quite 
generally  abandoned,  even  by  evangelical  scholars.  Its 
place  has  been  taken  by  a  variety  of  views,  which, 
however,  all  agree  in  this,  that  the  book  in  its  present 
form  originated  in  the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(175-163  B.  C.) ;  in  other  words,  that  it  is  the  out- 
growth of  the  Maccabean  troubles,  and  was  intended 
to  comfort  and  inspire  the  oppressed  Jewish  believers 
in  that  age.  A  discussion  of  this  problem  is  outside 
the  scope  of  this  chapter;  besides,  lack  of  space  makes 
it  impossible,  as  will  be  realized  when  it  is  seen  that 
Professor  Keil,  for  example,  after  bringing  forward  the 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel  under  six  heads,  discusses  the  objections  to  the 
genuineness  under  twenty-seven  heads.  Keil's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament  gives  a  good  idea  of 
the  arguments  in  favor  of  Daniel's  authorship;  the 
commentaries  of  Driver  and  of  Cobem,  to  which 
reference  has  been  made,  contain  admirable  discussions 
of  the  problem  from  the  modem  viewpoint. 

Pseudonymous  Authorship  a  Mark  of  Apocalyptic 
Literature.  If  the  book  is  an  apocalypse,  the  absence 
of  the  name  of  the  author  and  the  ascription  to  a 
prominent  person  in  Jewish  history  would  be  quite 
natural,  for  pseudonymous  authorship  is  one  of  the 
characteristic  marks  of  apocalyptic  literature,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  titles  of  apocalyptic  writ- 
ings, all  of  which  were  written  subsequent  to  200  B.  C. : 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  Book  of  Enoch,  Ascension  of 
Isaiah,  Assumption  of  Moses,  Testament  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  Psalms  of  Solomon.  In  an  apocalypse  it 
is  customary  for  the  author  to  place  "in  the  mouth 


302      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

of  some  ancient  worthy  a  history  of  events  up  to  the 
author's  own  time,  followed  by  a  description  of  God's 
judgment  on  the  wicked  and  deliverance  of  his  people." 

CONTENTS  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL 

The  Book  of  Daniel  falls  naturally  into  two  parts: 
chapters  i-6,  which  narrate  the  history  of  Daniel, 
and  chapters  7-12,  which  contain  an  account  of  the 
visions  of  Daniel. 

Daniel's  Youth  and  Education,  Chapter  i.  Chap- 
ter I  describes  Daniel's  youth  and  education.  In 
the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah,  Daniel  and 
other  Jewish  children  were  carried  captive  to  Baby- 
lonia (i.  1-3).  At  the  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar  he 
and  three  others  were  educated  for  three  years  in  all 
the  wisdom  of  the  Chaldeans.  During  the  entire 
period  they  carefully  refrained  from  eating  or  drinking 
anything  forbidden  by  their  law  (4-17).  At  the  end 
of  the  three  years  the  king  found  their  wisdom  and 
understanding  ten  times  greater  than  that  of  all  the 
magicians  and  enchanters  in  his  realm.  Concerning 
Daniel  the  specific  statement  is  made  that  he  had 
understanding  in  all  visions  and  dreams  (18-21). 

The  Dream  of  the  Image  and  its  Significance, 
Chapter  2.  Daniel's  powers  are  soon  put  to  a  test. 
In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  Nebuchadnezzar 
had  a  dream  which  sorely  troubled  him  (2.  i).  The 
wise  men  of  Babylon  were  appealed  to,  but  they 
were  unable  to  recall  or  interpret  the  dream.  This 
made  the  king  angry,  and  he  ordered  all  of  them  to 
be  slain  (2-13).  Daniel  intercedes  for  them  (14-16), 
and  the  secret  being  revealed  to  him  in  a  night  vision 
(17-24),  he  recalls  to  the  king  his  dream:  The  king 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  303 

had  seen  in  his  dream  a  great  and  terrible  image.  Its 
head  was  of  fine  gold,  its  breast  and  arms  of  silver, 
its  belly  and  thighs  of  brass,  its  legs  of  iron,  and  its 
feet  part  of  iron  and  part  of  clay.  While  watching 
the  image,  the  king  saw  a  stone  that  was  cut  out  with- 
out hands  smite  the  feet  of  the  image,  which  was 
broken  to  pieces,  but  the  stone  became  a  great  moun- 
tain and  filled  the  whole  earth  (25-35).  This  image, 
Daniel  interprets,  represents  by  its  different  parts 
successive  world  powers,  beginning  with  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, while  the  stone  represents  the  kingdom  of  God, 
which  will  destroy  all  the  others  and,  embracing  the 
whole  earth  in  its  sway,  will  abide  forever  (36-45). 
When  Nebuchadnezzar  hears  the  interpretation  he 
acknowledges  the  greatness  of  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews, and  in  gratitude  he  exalts  Daniel  to  the  position 
of  chief  governor  over  all  the  wise  men  of  Babylon. 
His  companions  also  are  greatly  honored  (46-49). 

Faithfulness  of  Daniel's  Companions  and  their 
Deliverance  from  the  Fiery  Furnace,  Chapter  3. 
Chapter  3  records  how  the  faithfulness  of  Daniel's 
companions  was  tested :  Nebuchadnezzar  erects  a  colos- 
sal image  of  gold.  For  its  dedication  he  summons  the 
nobles  from  his  whole  realm,  and  issues  orders  that  at 
a  given  signal  all  must  fall  down  and  worship  the 
golden  image.  Those  who  fail  to  do  this  are  threatened 
with  death  in  a  fiery  furnace  (3.  1-7).  The  king  is 
informed  that  the  companions  of  Daniel  did  not  obey 
his  command  (8-12),  whereupon  they  are  cast  into  the 
fiery  furnace  (13-23).  To  the  king's  astonishment  the 
flames  do  not  haim  them,  and  they  are  brought  forth 
(24-27).  The  king  again  acknowledges  their  God  as 
supreme  and  issues  a  decree  threatening  death  to  any- 


304  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

one  who  might  dare  to  speak  anything  amiss  against 
him.  The  three  Jews  receive  greater  honors  than 
before  (28-30). 

Nebuchadnezzar's  Tree-dream  and  its  Fulfillment, 
Chapter  4.  Nebuchadnezzar  issues  a  decree  to  all 
his  subjects,  setting  forth  the  wisdom  and  power 
of  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  (4.  1-3).  The  king  had  a 
dream  which  disturbed  him;  he  related  it  to  his  wise 
men,  but  they  could  not  interpret  it  (4-7).  At  last 
Daniel  came  in,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  related  the  dream 
to  him:  He  saw  in  a  dream  a  mighty  tree  that  reached 
to  heaven,  and  whose  branches  sheltered  the  birds 
of  the  heavens  and  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Suddenly 
he  heard  the  command  to  cut  down  the  tree;  only 
the  stump  of  the  roots  is  to  be  left,  and  its  portion 
is  to  be  with  the  beasts  of  the  field  for  seven  years 
(8-18).  Daniel  interpreted  this  dream  as  follows :  The 
tree  represents  the  king  in  his  greatness,  but  Jehovah 
has  decreed  to  bring  him  low;  his  reason  will  leave 
him  for  seven  years,  which  time  he  will  spend  among 
the  beasts  of  the  field,  until  he  has  learned  to  acknowl- 
edge the  sway  of  Jehovah.  Afterward  he  will  be 
restored  (19-27).  All  came  to  pass  as  Daniel  had 
predicted;  and  now,  in  gratitude  for  his  recovery, 
Nebuchadnezzar  issues  the  decree  (28-37). 

The  Feast  of  Belshazzar  and  the  Handwriting  on 
the  Wall,  Chapter  5.  Belshazzar,  the  king,  made 
a  great  feast  for  his  nobles,  during  which  they  drank 
wine  from  the  vessels  which  formerly  belonged  to  the 
temple  of  Jehovah  (5.  1-4).  Suddenly  the  king  sees 
the  fingers  of  a  man's  hand  writing  something  upon 
the  wall ;  the  wise  men  are  summoned  but  fail  to  inter- 
pret it  (5-9).    At  the  suggestion  of  the  queen  Daniel 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  305 

is  called  (10-12),  who  reads  the  words,  "Mene,  Mene, 
Tekel,  Upharsin"  (13-25),  and  interprets  them  as 
meaning  that  the  kingdom  of  Belshazzar  is  about  to 
be  given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians  (26-28).  Daniel 
receives  further  honors  (29),  Belshazzar  is  slain  the 
same  night  (30),  and  is  succeeded  by  Darius  the 
Mede  (31). 

Daniel's  Fidelity  and  his  Deliverance  from  the 
Lions'  Den,  Chapter  6.  Darius  continues  Daniel  in 
a  position  of  high  honor  (6.  1-3).  This  displeases  the 
presidents  and  satraps  of  the  provinces  of  Persia,  who 
plot  against  his  life  (4,  5).  They  induce  Darius  to 
issue  a  decree  forbidding  any  man  to  ask  a  petition 
of  any  god  or  man  except  the  king  for  thirty  days 
(6-8).  Daniel  is  caught  violating  the  decree  and  is 
cast  into  the  lions'  den  (9-17),  He  is,  however,  mirac- 
ulously delivered  (18-23),  ^-^d  his  accusers  are  cast  to 
the  lions  (24) ;  whereupon  Darius  issues  a  decree  exalt- 
ing the  God  of  Daniel,  and  the  latter  continues  to 
prosper  (25-28). 

The  Vision  of  the  Four  Beasts  and  its  Interpre- 
tation, Chapter  7.  With  7.  i  begins  the  second 
division  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  containing  chiefly 
accounts  of  Daniel's  visions  and  their  interpretations. 
The  first  vision  recorded  came  to  him  in  the  first  year 
of  Belshazzar.  He  saw  four  great  beasts  coming  up 
out  of  the  sea:  a  lion  with  the  wings  of  an  eagle,  a 
hear,  a  leopard  with  four  wings  and  four  heads,  and 
a  fourth  unnamed  beast  with  powerful  iron  teeth  and 
ten  horns.  Among  the  latter  another  horn  sprang  up, 
before  which  three  of  the  ten  were  plucked  up  (1-8). 
He  also  beheld  a  judgment  scene  in  heaven;  the  "one 
that  was  ancient  of  days"   sat  upon  the  judgment 


3o6      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

throne;  the  proud  horn  was  slain,  and  the  doom  of 
the  beasts  was  decreed  (9-12);  whereupon  the  ancient 
of  days  gave  dominion  over  all  the  world  to  "one 
like  unto  a  son  of  man"  (13,  14).  A  heavenly  inter- 
preter explains  the  meaning  of  the  vision  to  Daniel: 
The  four  beasts  signify  four  kingdoms,  all  of  which 
are  doomed.  After  the  destruction  of  the  fourth  "the 
saints  of  the  Most  High  shall  receive  the  kingdom,  and 
possess  the  kingdom  forever  and  ever"  (15-28). 

The  Ram  and  the  He-goat,  Chapter  8.  A  second 
vision — the  ram  and  the  he-goat — came  to  Daniel  in 
the  third  year  of  Belshazzar.  He  saw  a  powerful  ram 
with  two  high  horns  throwing  down  everything  before 
it  (8.  1-4),  until  a  he-goat  with  a  notable  horn  between 
his  eyes,  coming  from  the  west,  smote  the  ram  and 
broke  his  two  horns  (5-7).  After  a  time  the  one  horn 
was  broken,  and  its  place  taken  by  four  others,  out 
of  one  of  which  came  forth  a  little  horn,  which  grew 
very  powerful  and  stopped  even  the  daily  sacrifice  and 
destroyed  the  sanctuary  of  the  "prince  of  the  host." 
He  also  heard  a  voice  announcing  how  long  the  sway 
of  the  little  horn  and  the  desecration  of  the  sanctuary 
would  continue  (8-14).  The  angel  Gabriel  interprets 
the  vision  to  Daniel  (15-19):  The  ram  represents  the 
Medo-Persian  empire  (20),  the  he-goat  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  and  the  great  horn  between  his  eyes  the  first 
king  (21);  the  four  horns  represent  four  kingdoms  into 
which  the  kingdom  of  Greece  is  to  be  divided  (22); 
the  little  horn  is  a  king  of  fierce  countenance,  who 
will  exalt  himself  even  against  the  "prince  of  princes"; 
but  in  the  end  he  will  be  brought  low  (23-27). 

DaniePs  Prayer  and  the  Divine  Answer,  Chapter 
9.     In   the   first  year   of   Darius   Daniel  understood 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  307 

"by  the  books"  that  the  seventy  years  of  desolation 
foretold  by  Jeremiah  were  drawing  to  a  close  (9.  i,  2). 
He  therefore  makes  confession  of  the  people's  sins  and 
implores  Jehovah  to  speedily  restore  the  divine  favor 
(3-19).  While  he  prays  the  angel  Gabriel  appears  and 
explains  to  him  that  the  seventy  years  mean  really 
seventy  weeks  of  years,  before  the  kingdom  of  God 
can  ultimately  triumph  (20-24).  The  seventy  weeks 
are  divided  into  three  smaller  periods,  seven  weeks 
from  the  going  forth  of  the  command  to  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem to  "the  anointed  one,  the  prince";  then  sixty- 
two  weeks  during  which  the  holy  city  will  exist.  At 
the  end  of  this  period  the  anointed  one  shall  be  cut 
off,  and  "the  people  of  the  prince  that  shall  come" 
shall  destroy  the  city  and  the  sanctuary.  During  one 
half  of  the  remaining  week  sacrifice  and  oblation  will 
cease,  but  after  that  the  power  of  the  desolator  will 
be  broken  (25-27). 

The  Ultimate  Triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  God, 
Chapters  10-12.  Chapters  10-12  record  a  vision  of 
Daniel  in  the  third  year  of  Cyrus,  by  the  river  Tigris. 
At  the  conclusion  of  twenty-one  days  of  fasting  and 
mourning  a  heavenly  messenger  appears  to  him  (10. 
1-12).  He  tells  Daniel  that  he  would  have  come 
sooner,  but  "the  prince  of  the  kingdom  of  Persia" 
withstood  him.  Through  the  assistance  of  Michael, 
"one  of  the  chief  princes,"  he  has  at  last  arrived,  to 
make  known  to  him  what  will  befall  his  people  in  the 
latter  days  (13,  14).  When  Daniel  has  recovered  from 
his  first  terror  (15-19)  the  messenger  informs  him  that 
he  and  Michael,  the  prince  of  the  Jews,  will  have  to 
fight  in  the  Jews'  behalf,  first  with  the  prince  of  Persia, 
then  with  the  prince  of  Greece  (10,  20 — 11.  i).    Persia, 


3o8  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

after  the  rule  of  four  kings,  will  be  overthrown  by  a 
powerful  king  of  Greece,  whose  kingdom  will  be 
divided  after  his  death  (2-4).  The  alliances  and  con- 
flicts between  the  kings  of  the  south  (Egypt)  and  the 
kings  of  the  north  (Syria)  during  the  succeeding  genera- 
tions are  portrayed  in  verses  5-20.  Finally  "a  con- 
temptible person"  will  ascend  the  throne  of  the  northern 
kingdom;  he  will  exalt  himself  greatly,  carry  on  cruel 
wars  against  many  nations,  and  oppress  even  the 
people  of  the  most  high  God ;  yet  he  shall  come  to  his 
end  and  none  shall  help  him  (21-45).  The  death  of 
the  oppressor  will  be  followed  by  the  deliverance  of 
the  Jews,  the  resurrection  of  many,  and  the  exaltation 
of  the  faithful  (12.  1-3).  The  message  of  the  vision 
is  to  encourage  those  who  live  in  the  time  of  the  end, 
that  is,  during  the  final  struggles  preceding  the  ulti- 
mate triumph  of  God  and  of  his  saints  (4).  When 
that  will  come  is  explained  to  Daniel  in  verses  5-13. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  THE  BOOK  OF  DANIEL 

Design  and   Purpose   of    the  Book  of  Daniel.      A 

•ecent  conservative  writer,  who  believes  that  Daniel 
wrote  the  book,  sets  forth  its  design  and  purpose  in 
these  words:  "It  is  neither  prophetic  nor  historic.  It 
is  designed  rather  to  show  how  God  cares  for  his 
people  even  when  everything  seems  against  them,  with 
their  temple  destroyed,  their  nation  scattered,  and 
the  severe  burdens  of  slavery  resting  upon  the  nation." 
With  this  statement  would  agree  also  those  who  believe 
that  the  book  in  its  present  form  comes  from  a  later 
date.  It  is  seen,  therefore,  that  the  essential  teaching 
of  the  book  remains  unaltered  and  its  permanent  value 
unaffected  by  any  special  view  concerning  its  date  and 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  309 

authorship.  The  testimony  of  Professor  Terry,  given 
after  a  study  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  during  a  period 
of  more  than  thirty  years,  is  worthy  of  consideration. 
Speaking  of  himself  in  the  third  person,  he  says:  "He 
has  found  few  portions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  more 
profitable  for  devout  study,  and  he  here  repeats  what 
he  has  published  elsewhere,  and  uttered  time  and 
again,  that  whatever  may  be  the  results  of  scientific 
criticism  touching  the  date  and  authorship  of  the 
book,  the  apocalyptic  chapters  constitute  a  most 
original  and  important  body  of  divine  revelation. 
Whether  written  during  the  exile  or  in  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  they  contain  a  picture  of  the  kingdoms  of 
the  world  and  their  ultimate  subjection  to  the  king- 
dom of  God,  worthy  of  rank  with  any  prophecies  to 
be  found  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Nowhere  else  do 
we  find  before  the  advent  of  Christ  such  a  magnificent 
conception  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  The  issues  of 
modem  criticisms,  however,  are  not  over  these  facts, 
but  over  questions  of  the  date  of  the  composition,  the 
methods  of  interpretation,  and  the  literary  character 
of  the  book  as  one  of  the  'divers  portions'  of  God's 
old-time  revelations." 

The  Ultimate  Triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
The  principal  idea,  then,  of  the  book  is  the  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  "It  tells,"  says 
Beardslee,  "in  plainer  language  than  had  been  used 
before,  of  the  subjection  of  the  world  to  God,  and 
indicates  clearly  the  evidence  of  the  divine  rule,  and 
assures  us  that  the  progress  of  God's  kingdom  is 
absolutely  irresistible  and  that  all  things  will  be 
ultimately  brought  into  submission  to  God." 

Earlier  prophets  looked  with  equal  assurance  for  the 


3IO      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  when  the  divine 
will  and  purpose  would  be  realized  in  every  detail  of 
life;  and,  like  these  prophets,  the  author  of  the  Book 
of  Daniel  expected  that  the  reign  of  righteousness 
would  begin  immediately  after  the  great  crisis  of  his 
own  day  and  generation  would  be  over.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  kingdom  in  the  book  differs,  however,  in 
some  respects  from  that  of  earlier  writers,  as  is  quite 
natural  in  view  of  the  apocalyptic  character  of  the 
whole  book.  The  kingdom  of  God  for  which  the  earlier 
prophets  looked  was  an  earthly  kingdom,  "little  more 
than  a  continuance  of  the  existing  state  of  society, 
only  purged  by  a  judgment  from  sin,  and  freed  from 
trouble."  The  Book  of  Daniel  marks  a  transition 
from  this  conception  to  the  conception  of  a  heavenly 
kingdom  of  God,  which  appears  even  more  prominently 
in  later  apocalyptic  and  New  Testament  writings. 

Two  other  points  in  the  teaching  of  the  book  may 
be  considered : 

Angels  in  the  Book  of  Daniel.  From  the  time 
of  Zechariah  angels  become  more  and  more  prominent 
in  the  thought  of  Judaism.  The  teaching  of  the  Book 
of  Daniel  concerning  angels  marks  an  advance  over 
earlier  teaching  along  three  lines:  (i)  The  doctrine  of 
guardian  or  patron  angels,  determining  the  destinies 
of  separate  nations,  appears  here  for  the  first  time  in 
definite  form.  The  angels  of  Persia,  Greece,  and 
Judah  are  mentioned  in  Dan.  lo.  13,  20,  21;  12.  i. 
(2)  For  the  first  time  names  are  given  to  angels.  The 
guardian  angel  of  the  Jews  is  Michael  (10.  13,  2i;i2.  i), 
who  fights  for  them  against  the  guardian  angels  of 
their  enemies,  and  Gabriel  appears  as  a  heaven-sent 
interpreter  (8.   16;  9.   21).     (3)   Distinction    in  rank 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  ,  311 

among  angels  also  appears  first  in  Daniel.  Michael  is 
called  "the  great  prince"  (12,  i),  and  "one  of  the 
chief  princes"  (10.  13).  The  latter  expression  would 
seem  to  refer  to  a  group  of  superior  angels,  to  whom 
at  a  later  time  the  name  archangels  is  given  (compare 
Jude  9).  In  some  of  the  later  Jewish  writings  four 
such  angels  are  mentioned,  in  others  seven.  The  seven 
angels  that  stand  before  God  appear  also  in  Rev.  8.  2. 
The  Hope  of  a  Resurrection.  Resurrection  is  the 
other  element  in  the  teaching  of  Daniel  demanding 
attention.  Dan.  12.  2  reads,  "And  many  of  them 
that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some 
to  everlasting  life,  and  some  to  shame  and  everlasting 
contempt."  This  passage  contains  the  most  definite 
reference  to  resurrection  found  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  general  Old  Testament  conception  of  a  life  or 
existence  after  death  is  rather  hazy  and,  on  the  whole, 
gloomy  and  full  of  despair.  The  dead  are  represented 
as  gathering  in  Sheol,  where  they  live  a  "shadowy, 
half-conscious,  joyless  existence,  not  worthy  of  the 
name  of  life,  where  communion  with  God  was  at  an 
end,  and  where  God's  mercies  could  be  neither  appre- 
hended nor  acknowledged."  But  here  and  there  rays 
of  light  appear.  Sometimes  the  hope  is  expressed  that 
God  will  deliver  his  saints  from  death;  at  other  times, 
that  they  will  be  raised  from  the  dead.  To  the  latter 
class  belongs  the  passage  quoted.  But  even  in  this, 
perhaps  the  latest  expression  of  the  hope  of  a  resur- 
rection in  the  Old  Testament,  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  remains  incomplete.  The  Christian  still 
needs  the  fuller  light  cast  upon  the  subject  by  Jesus 
himself.  What  the  passage  in  Daniel  adds  to  the 
earlier  teaching  is;  (i)  the  resurrection  of  the  wicked, 


312      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

which  is  clearly  taught  here  for  the  first  time;  (2) 
the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  punishments, 
though  the  nature  of  these  rewards  and  punishments  is 
left  indefinite.  There  are,  however,  still  certain  limi- 
tations. In  the  first  place,  the  context  makes  it 
doubtful  that  the  author  meant  to  include  non-Israel- 
ites in  the  promise  of  a  resurrection.  Throughout  the 
book  he  is  concerned  with  the  deliverance  and  exalta- 
tion of  the  oppressed  Jews;  hence  it  would  seem  most 
natural  to  interpret  the  references  in  chapter  12  also 
as  applying  to  the  Jews.  Moreover,  the  expression 
"many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth 
shall  awake"  would  seem  to  imply  that  not  even  all 
Israelites  will  be  raised  from  the  dead.  As  is  sug- 
gested by  several  commentators,  the  writer  may  have 
in  mind  only  "those  individuals  who  had  in  an  extraor- 
dinary degree  helped  or  hindered  the  advent  of  God's 
kingdom,  that  is,  the  Jewish  martyrs  and  apostates 
respectively;  the  great  majority  of  the  nation,  who 
were  of  average  character,  neither  overmuch  righteous 
nor  overmuch  wicked,  remaining  still  in  Sheol." 

The  Prophets  a  Preparation  for  the  Advent  of 
Jesus  the  Christ.  This  limitation  in  the  prophetic 
conception  is  only  one  of  several  which  the  student  of 
Hebrew  prophecy  discovers;  and  these  shortcomings 
are  only  what  we  might  expect.  Even  the  first  great 
apologist  of  Christianity,  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  recognizes  the  incompleteness  of  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation,  which  had  to  be  supplemented 
and  perfected  by  a  new  and  more  glorious  manifesta- 
tion of  God;  hence,  "God,  having  of  old  time  spoken 
unto  the  fathers  in  the  prophets  by  divers  portions 
and  in  divers  manners,  hath  at  the  end  of  these  days 


JONAH  AND  DANIEL  313 

spoken  unto  us  in  a  Son."  Therefore,  while  the 
prophetic  books  which  we  have  studied  are  unques- 
tionably "able  to  make  wise  unto  salvation  through 
faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus,"  and  are  "profitable 
for  teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction 
which  is  in  righteousness:  that  the  man  of  God  may 
be  complete,  furnished  completely  unto  every  good 
work,"  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  these  w^ritings 
mark  a  preparatory  stage,  and  that  the  full  revelation 
of  God  came  in  and  through  Jesus  the  Christ,  the 
record  of  which  revelation  is  found  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

CHAPTER  I 

1.  What  is  the  Bible? 

2.  Explain  the  etymology  of  the  word  "Bible." 

3.  How  many  books  are  there  in  the  Bible?     How  many  in 

the  Old  Testament?     How  many  in  the  New? 

4.  Name  in  order  the  books  of  the  English  Old  Testament. 

5.  How  are  these  books  grouped  ?    Name  the  books  belongmg 

to  each  group. 

6.  State  the  differences  between  the  English  Old  Testament 

and  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  explain  their  origin. 

7.  How  many  books  are  there  in  the  Hebrew  Bible?     How 

are  they  grouped? 

8.  Mark  the  three  stages  in  the  formation  of  the  Old  Testa- 

ment canon. 

9.  Explain  the  phrase  "in  divers  portions." 

10.  What  is  the  meaning  of  "  in  divers  manners"  ? 

11.  Indicate   some   methods   by   which   God   makes   himself 

known. 

12.  Name  four  classes  of  religious  workers  who  during  the 

Old  Testament  period  aided  God  in  his  attempts  to 
reach  man. 

13.  Describe  the  activity  of  the  prophets  and  the  origin  of  the 

prophetic  literature. 
14    Describe  the  activity  of  the  wise  men  and  the  origin  of  the 
wisdom  literature. 

15.  Describe  the  origin  of  the  devotional  literature. 

16.  Describe  the  activity  of  the  priests  and  the  origin  of  the 

legal  or  priestly  literature. 

17.  Describe  the  activity  of  the  prophets  and  priests  as  his- 

torians, and  the  origin  of  the  historical  literature. 

CHAPTER  n 

1,  Where  is  the  ultimate  basis  of  prophecy  to  be  found? 

2.  State    four    universal    religious    beliefs    underlying    the 

phenomenon  of  prophecy. 
3M 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  315 

3.  Describe  the  "passive"  external  method  of  determining 

the  will  of  the  Deity. 

4.  Describe  some  of  the  efforts  put  forth  for  the  purpose  of 

determining  the  will  of  the  Deity, 

5.  Describe   the    internal    method   of   divine   revelation   as 

illustrated,  for  example,  at  Delphi. 

6.  State  three   important  differences  between  prophecy  in 

Israel  and  "prophecy"  outside  of  Israel. 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "prophet"  as  used  in  the 

Old  Testament? 

8.  State  and  explain  three  names  given  to  the  prophets  by 

their  contemporaries. 
Q.  Discuss  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  prophetic  activity, 

10.  When  did  prophecy  originate  in  Israel? 

11.  Describe  the  prophetic  activity  of  Moses. 

12.  What  prophets  appeared  during  the  period  of  the  Judges? 

13.  Who  are  the  "sons  of  the  p  ophets"? 

14.  Why  does  Samuel  deserve  to  be  called  a  prophet? 

15.  Describe  the  prophetic  activity  during  the  reigns  of  David 

and  Solomon,  and  in  connection  with  the  division  of 
the  kingdom. 

16.  Describe  two  classes  of  false  prophets. 

17.  What    danger    threatened    Jehovah    religion    during   the 

reign  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel? 

18.  What  was  the  principal  result  of  the  activity  of  Elijah  and 

Elisha? 

19.  Name,  with  dates,  the  eighth  century  prophets. 

20.  Name,  with  dates,  the  seventh  century  prophets. 

21.  Name,  with  dates,  the  prophets  of  the  exile. 

22.  Name,  with  dates,  the  prophets  of  the  postexilic  period. 

23.  What  twofold  danger  threatened  Jehovah  religion  in  the 

eighth  century? 

24.  What  truths  did  the  eighth  century  prophets  emphasize? 

25.  Describe  briefly  the  activity  and  teaching  of  the  seventh 

century  prophets. 

26.  Describe   briefly   the   activity   of    the    prophets    of   the 

exile. 

27.  Describe  briefly  the  activity  and  teaching  of  the  postexilic 

prophets. 


3i6      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

28.  State  three  reasons  for  the  decline  and  final  extinction  of 
Hebrew  prophecy. 

CHAPTER  III 

1.  Trace  the  course  of  political  events  in  Israel  from  the 

revolution  of  Jehu  to  the  accession  of  Jeroboam  II. 

2.  Point  out  the  important  events  in  Jeroboam's  reign. 

3.  Describe  the  prosperity  and  luxury  in  Israel  as  portrayed 

by  Amos. 

4.  Describe  moral  and  social  conditions  in  the  days  of  Amos. 

5.  What  were  the  religious  conditions? 

6.  Where  was  Amos  bom,  and  what  was  his  occupation? 

7.  How  did  his  occupation  prepare  him  for  the  prophetic 

ofhce? 

8.  What  was  the  attitude  of  the  priest  at  Beth-el  toward 

Amos? 

9.  Is  there  anything  known  concerning  the  later  life  of  Amos? 

10.  How  is  the  date  of  Amos  determined? 

11.  Indicate  the  logical  arrangement  of  the  Book  of  Amos. 

12.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  the  contents  of  Amos  i  and  4. 

13.  Separate  the  five  discourses  contained  in  Amos  3-6,  and 

briefly  state  the  contents  of  each. 

14.  Briefly  state  the  contents  of  Amos  7-9. 

15.  Explain  each  of  the  five  visions  narrated  in  Amos  7-9. 

16.  What  aspects  of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah  were 

emphasized  by  Amos? 

17.  State  six  truths  concerning  Israel  and  its  destiny  taught 

by  Amos. 

18.  What  are  some  of  the  permanent  lessons  of  the  Book  of 

Amos? 

CHAPTER  IV 

1.  When  did  Hosea  prophesy? 

2.  Describe  political  conditions  in  Israel  subsequent  to  the 

death  of  Jeroboam  II. 

3.  Describe  moral  and  religious  conditions  during  the  same 

period. 

4.  Where  was  the  home  of  Hosea? 

5.  How  is  the  narrative  concerning  Hosea's  marriage  to  be 

explained  ? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  317 

6.  What  bearing  did  Hosea's  domestic  experience  have  upon 

his  prophetic  activity  ? 

7.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  Hosea  1—3. 

8.  Give  a  general  idea  of  the  contents  of  Hosea  4-14. 

9.  What  phases  of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah  does 

Hosea  emphasize  ? 

10.  What  does  Hosea  say  concerning  Israel,  the  chosen  people 

of  Jehovah  ? 

11.  What  kind  of  service  does  Hosea  consider  acceptable  to 

Jehovah? 

12.  What  four  elements  enter  into  Hosea's  teaching  concerning 

the  restoration  of  Israel? 

13.  State  the  closing  events  in  the  history  of  the  northern 

kingdom. 

CHAPTER  V 

1.  Describe  external  conditions — political,   industrial,  com- 

mercial— in  Judah  during  the  reign  of  Uzziah. 

2.  Describe  external  conditions  during  the  reigns  of  Jotham, 

Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah. 

3.  Describe  moral  and  social  conditions  during  the  same 

period. 

4.  What  was  the    attitude    of    the  prophets    toward    the 

nobles? 

5.  Describe  religious  conditions  during  the  reigns  mentioned. 

6.  Why  may  Isaiah  be  called  a  king  among  prophets? 

7.  What  is  known  concerning  the    personal  life,   the  family, 

and  the  death  of  Isaiah? 

8.  When  did  Isaiah  prophesy? 

9.  Give  the  principal  divisions  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  and 

briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  each  division. 

10.  Indicate  the  sections  of  the  book  that  are  by  many  denied 

to  Isaiah  or  are  looked  upon  with  suspicion. 

11.  Indicate,  in  chronological  order,  the  diff'erent  periods  to 

which  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  may  be  assigned. 

12.  What  is  the  key  to  Isaiah's  activity? 

13.  What  is  Isaiah's  conception  of  the  divine  holiness? 

14.  What  does  Isaiah  teach  concerning  the  divine  majesty? 

15.  What  does  Isaiah  believe  concerning  the  relation  of  Jeho- 

vah to  man? 


3i8      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

1 6.  Stunmarize  the  truths  impressed  upon  Isaiah  during  his 

inaugural  vision. 

17.  How  does  the  influence  of  this  vision  manifest  itself? 

18.  Briefly  indicate  the   various   interests   and   activities  of 

Isaiah. 

19.  What  led  Isaiah  to  emphasize  the  divine  majesty? 

20.  What  did  Isaiah  teach  concerning  the  service  acceptable 

to  Jehovah? 

21.  Describe  the  activity  of   Isaiah  as   a  moral   and  social 

reformer. 

22.  What  was  the  fundamental  factor  in  Isaiah's  attitude  as  a 

statesman  ? 

23.  Describe    Isaiah's    political    activity    during    the    Syro- 

Ephraimitic  crisis. 

24.  State  two  reasons  underlying  Isaiah's  opposition  to  the 

policy  of  Ahaz, 

25.  What  was  Isaiah  s  conception  of  faith? 

26.  What  were  the  results  of  Ahaz's  stubbornness? 

27.  Describe  Isaiah's  political  activity  in  705-701,  and  point 

out  how  his  attitude  then  may  be  harmonized  with 
that  of  734. 

28.  How  did  later  events  justify  Isaiah's  attitude? 

29.  What   did   Isaiah   teach   concerning   the   salvation  of  a 

emnant? 

30.  Outline  Isaiah's  teaching  concerning  the  character  of  the 

Messianic  era. 

31.  What  does  Isaiah  say  concerning  the  nature  and  character 

of  the  Messianic  king? 

32.  What    does    Isaiah    say    concerning    the    nile    of    this 

king? 
23.  Why  does  Isaiah  insist  so  strongly  upon  the  inviolability 

of  Zion? 
34.  In  what  respect  does  Isaiah's  activity  foreshadow  the 

formation  of  the  church? 

CHAPTER  VI 

1.  Institute  a  comparison  between  Isaiah  and  Micah. 

2.  Where  was  Micah's  home? 

3.  When  did  Micah  prophesy? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  319 

4.  Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  separate  utterances  in  the 

Book  of  Micah, 

5.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  Mic,  1,2. 

6.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  Mic.  3-5. 

7.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  Mic.  6,  7. 

8.  What  does  Micah  teach  concerning  the  relation  of  Jehovah 

to  Israel? 

9.  Why  does  Micah  give  such  prominent  place  to  the  divine 

judgments? 

10.  What  does  Micah  say  concerning  the  Messianic  king? 

11.  Indicate  the  significance  of  the  eighth  century  prophets. 

CHAPTER  VII 

1.  Outline  the  history  of  Judah  during  the  century  preceding 

the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  What  became  of  the  people  subsequently  to  the  captvire  of 

the  city? 

3.  Describe  the  invasion  of  the  Scythians. 

4.  When  did  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  come  to  an  end? 

5.  Who  became  the  successor  of  Assyria? 

6.  Describe  religious  conditions  in  Judah  during  the  reigns 

of    Manasseh   and   Amon,    and    the   early  years   of 
Josiah's  reign. 

7.  What  event  was  chiefly  responsible  for  a  change  in  con- 

ditions ? 

8.  When  did  the  reforms  of  Josiah  take  definite  shape? 

9.  In  what  year  was  Josiah  Siain? 

10.  What   effect   did    the    death    of   Josiah   have    upon   the 

reforms  instituted  by  him? 

1 1 .  Describe  moral  and  social  conditions  at  the  time  Jeremiah 

began  his  prophetic  work. 

12.  Give  a  brief  outline  of  Jeremiah's  personal  life. 

13.  Describe  Jeremiah's  call  to  the  prophetic  office. 

14.  How  does  the  temperament  of  Jeremiah  manifest  itself 

during  his  career? 

15.  Indicate  some  of  the  hardships  the  prophet  had  to  endure. 

16.  Indicate  the  bright  and  noble  aspects  of  Jeremiah's  char- 

acter. 

17.  Describe  various  methods  employed  by  Jeremiah. 


320      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

18.  What  do  we  learn  from  the  Book  of  Jeremiah  concerning 

its  composition? 

19.  Indicate  the  nine  groups  of  prophecies  into  which  the  book 

may  be  divided. 

20.  What  is  the  central  theme  of  Jeremiah's  teaching? 

21.  What  does  Jeremiah  say  concerning  Jehovah's  interest  in 

Israel? 

22.  What  does  he  say  concerning  Israel's  apostasy? 

23.  How  does  he  treat  the  self -righteousness  of  the  people? 

24.  Outline  Jeremiah's  threats  of  judgment. 

25.  State  Jeremiah's  view  concerning  the  remnant. 

26.  What  does  Jeremiah  say  concerning  a  restoration  from 

exile  ? 

27.  What  does  he  teach  concerning  a  new  Jerusalem? 

28.  What  is  his  conception  of  the  ideal  king  of  the  future? 

29.  What  is  his  conception  of  the  new  covenant? 

30.  How  did  Jeremiah  spiritualize  religion? 

31.  What  does  he  say  concerning  individual  responsibility? 

32.  What  is  his  attitude  toward  the  salvation  of  other  nations? 
23.  What  is  his  attitude  toward  the  externals  of  religion? 

CHAPTER  VIII 

I.  ZEPHAIflAH 

1.  What  was  the  occasion  of  Zephaniah's  prophetic  activity? 

2.  What  accusations  does  Zephaniah  bring  against  Judahand 

Jerusalem  ? 

3.  Enumerate  the  other  nations  condemned  by  Zephaniah. 

4.  What  effects,  does  he  say,  will  the  judgment  have  upon 

Judah  and  the  other  nations? 

5.  In  what  points  does  the  teaching  of  Zephaniah  resemble 

that  of  his  predecessors  ? 

6.  What  does  Zephaniah  say  concerning  the  day  of  Jehovah? 

7.  Does  Zephaniah  consider  it  necessary  for  the  nations  to 

come  to  Jerusalem  to  worship  Jehovah  ? 

2.   NAHX7H 

1 .  When  and  under  what  circumstances  did  Nahum  prophesy? 

2.  Where  was  the  home  of  Nahum? 

3.  What  is  the  central  theme  of  Nahum's  prophecies? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  321 

4.  Give  a  summary  of  Nahum's  description  of  the  destruction 

of  Nineveh. 

5.  What  does    Nahum    teach  concerning  the    character  of 

Jehovah  ? 

6.  Explain  Nahum's  silence  concerning  Judah's  sins. 

7.  What  prompted  Nahum  to  glory  in  the  doom  of  Nineveh? 

8.  State  some  of  the  permanent  lessons  of  the  Book  of  Nahum. 

9.  State  the  Messianic  teaching  of  Nahum. 

3.  HABAKKUK 

1.  How  do  the  utterances  of  Habakkuk  differ  from  those 

of  his  predecessors? 

2.  Describe    moral    conditions    in    Judah   at   the    time   of 

Habakkuk. 

3.  Describe  political  conditions. 

4.  State  the  twofold  perplexity  of  Habakkuk  and  the  divine 

solutions. 

5.  Upon  what  forms  of  wrongdoing  are  the  woes  in  2.  6-20 

pronounced  ? 

6.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  the  prayer  of  Habakkuk. 

7.  Why  may  Habakkuk  be  called  a  prophet  of  faith? 

8.  What  two  truths  are  emphasized  by  Habakkuk? 

4.  OBADIAH 

1.  What  is   the  historical  background   of  the  prophecy  of 

Obadiah? 

2.  What  evidence  is  there  to  show  that  Edom  was  hostile  to 

Judah  during  the  closing  scenes  of  Judah's  history? 

3.  When  was  the  prophecy  of  Obadiah  delivered? 

4.  Summarize  the  message  of  Obadiah. 

5.  What  was  the  twofold  purpose  of  Obadiah? 

6.  Summarize  the  teaching  of  Obadiah. 

CHAPTER  IX 

1.  What  led  to  Judah's  downfall? 

2.  Wherein  does  the  fall  of  Judah  differ  from  that  of  Israel? 

3.  When  did  the  two  deportations  take  place? 

4.  Describe  the  external  conditions  of  the  exiles. 

C.  Describe  the  religious  and  moral  conditions  of  the  exiles. 


322      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

6.  What  effect  did  the  ministry  of  Ezekiel  have  upon  the 

exiles  ? 

7.  What  two  currents  of  influence  may  be  seen  in  Ezekiel's 

character  and  work? 

8.  When  did  Ezekiel  receive  the  call  to  the  prophetic  office? 

9.  What  two  truths  impressed  themselves  upon  him  in  his 

inaugural  vision? 

10.  What  was  Ezekiel's  principal  work  during  the  years  pre- 

ceding the  destruction  of  Jerusalem? 

11.  What  was  his  principal  task  subsequently  to  that  catas- 

Iwophe  ? 

12.  How  did  the  work  of  Ezekiel  differ  from  that  of  his  prede- 

cessors ? 

13.  Describe  some  of  the  methods  adopted  by  Ezekiel  to  make 

his  message  more  impressive. 

14.  Indicate  the  principal  divisions  of  the  Book  of  Ezekiel 

and  state  the  contents  of  each  division, 

15.  Describe  Ezekiel's  inaugural  vision. 

16.  Name  the  nations  against  which  Ezekiel  prophesied. 

17.  Indicate  the  significance  of  Ezekiel  in  the  history  of  the 

Jews. 

18.  On  what  condition  might  the  divine  favor  be  restored 

to  Judah? 

19.  Why  does  Ezekiel  announce  judgments  upon  the  heathen 

nations  ? 

20.  How  will  the  land  be  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the 

returning  exiles? 

21.  How  will  the  exiles  be  prepared  for  the  rettim? 

22.  Under  what  figure  does  the  prophet  describe  the  restora- 

tion? 

23.  What  does  Ezekiel  say  concerning  the  Messianic  ruler? 

24.  What  is  the  supreme  blessing  promised  to  the  exiles? 

25.  Why  and  for  what  purpose  did  Ezekiel  formulate  the  theo- 

cratic constitution  in  chapters  40-48  ? 

26.  What  is  Ezekiel's  conception  of  the  glory  of  Jehovah? 

27.  What  does  Ezekiel  mean  by  the  statement  that  Jehovah 

does  something  "for  his  name's  sake"? 

28.  What  does    he    mean   by  the  statement  that  Jehovah 

will  "sanctify  himself"? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  323 

29.  What  does  Ezekiel  teach  concerning  individual  responsi- 

bility? 

30.  Wherein  does  Ezekiel's  view  of  the  early  history  of  Israel 

differ  from  that  of  his  predecessors? 

31.  Explain    Ezekiel's    high    estimate    of    the    externals    of 

religion. 

CHAPTER  X 

1.  Narrate  the  events  leading  to  the  capture  of  Babylon  by 

Cyrus. 

2.  Indicate  the  historical  background  of  Isa.  4off. 

3.  What  two  explanations  are  suggested  of  the  fact  that 

these  chapters  reflect  the  Babylonian  exile  ? 

4.  What  is  the  date  reflected  in  these  chapters  ? 

5.  Indicate  the  sections  into  which  these  chapters  may  be 

divided. 

6.  What  is  the  principal  theme  of  Isa.  40-48? 

7.  What  is  the  principal  theme  of  Isa.  49-55? 

8.  Indicate  some  of  the  features  in  chapters  40-48  that  are 

omitted  in  chapters  49-55. 

9.  What  is  the  principal  theme  of  Isa.  56-66? 

10.  What  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  Isa.  4off.? 

1 1 .  What  was  to  be  the  mission  of  the  redeemed  Israel  ? 

12.  Why  was  it  necessary  to  emphasize  in  exile  the  sole  deity 

of  Jehovah? 

13.  How  does  the  author  seek  to  establish  the  sole  deity  of 

Jehovah? 

14.  Where  does  the  author  find  evidences  of  the  divine  power 

and  supremacy? 

15.  For  what  purpose  does  the  author  emphasize  the  omnipo- 

tence of  Jehovah? 

16.  Indicate  some  of  the  ways  in  which,  according  to  the 

author,  the  righteousness  of  Jehovah  finds  expression. 

17.  Why  does   the  author  use  the  title  "the  Holy  One  of 

Israel"? 

18.  What  is  Jehovah's  plan  for  the  nations  of  the  earth? 

19.  How  is  the  redemptive  purpose  of  Jehovah  to  be  carried 

out? 

20.  Indicate  the  author's  thought  concerning  Israel  as  the 

"servant  of  Jehovah." 


324      PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

21.  State  Delitzsch's  interpretation  of  the  "servant  of  Jeho- 

vah" passages. 

22.  Who  is  the "  servant  of  Jehovah"  in  Isa.  40-53? 

23.  In  what  sense  does  Isa.  53  find  its  fulfillment  in  Jesus? 

24.  Describe  the  glories  of  the  Messianic  age  as  portrayed  in 

Isa.  4off. 

25.  What  does  the  author  conceive  to  be  the  service  accept- 

able to  Jehovah  ? 

CHAPTER  XI 

1.  When  did  Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophesy? 

2.  When  did  the  first  return  from  exile  take  place? 

3.  Why   did   the  building  operations   on   the   temple  soon 

cease? 

4.  What  important  political  events  took  place  in  Persia  after 

the  death  of  Cyrus? 

5.  How  did  the  prophets  interpret  these  events? 

6.  Describe  religious  and  moral  conditions  in  Jerusalem  at 

the  time  Haggai  and  Zechariah  prophesied, 

7.  What  was  the  task  of  the  two  prophets? 

8.  Separate  the  several  utterances  of  Haggai  and  briefly 

state  the  purpose  of  each. 

9.  Why  did  Haggai  and  Zechariah  insist  so  strongly  on  the 

rebuilding  of  the  temple? 

10.  Give  a  brief  summary  of  Haggai's  teaching. 

11.  How  does  the  influence  of  Haggai's  one  idea  show  itself 

in  all  his  teaching? 

12.  On  what  does  Zechariah  base   his  opening  appeal   for 

repentance? 

13.  What  was  the  purpose  of  Zechariah's  visions? 

14.  Indicate  the  eight  night  visions  of  Zechariah  and  briefly 

state  the  significance  of  each. 

15.  What  did  the  crowning  of  the  high  priest  signify? 

16.  Wherein  does  Zechariah  differ  from  his  predecessors? 

17.  What  duties  are  performed  by  the  angels  who  appear  in 

Zech.  1-8? 

18.  Compare  Zechariah's  estimate  of  the  temple  with  that  of 

Haggai. 

19.  What  elements  enter  into  the  Messianic  hope  of  Zechariah? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  325 

20.  What  are  the  essential  requirements  of  Jehovah  according 

to  Zechariah? 

2 1 .  Upon  what  did  the  success  and  well-being  of  the  restored 

exiles  depend? 

22.  Why  are  Zech.  9-14  denied  to  the  author  of  Zech.  1-8? 

23.  What  is  the  probable  date  of  these  chapters  ? 

24.  Indicate  in  a  general  way  the  contents  of  these  chapters. 

25.  What  promises  are  held  out  to  the  distressed  Jews? 

26.  What  will  be  the  destiny  of  the  nations? 

27.  What  is  said  concerning  the  Messianic  king? 

28.  Briefly  state   the  parable  of  the  good  and  the  foolish 

shepherd,  and  explain  its  teaching. 

CHAPTER  XII 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  name  "Malachi"? 

2.  Indicate  some  of  the  views  as  to  the  use  of  this  name  in  the 

heading  of  the  Book  of  Malachi. 

3.  Give  a  brief  character  sketch  of  the  author  of  the  book. 

4.  When  did  Malachi  prophesy  ? 

5.  Outline   political   events  in  Western  Asia  between   516 

and  458  B.  C. 

6.  Explain  the  rise  of  religious  indifference  and  skepticism 

in  the  Jewish  community. 

7.  How  did  this  indifference  and  skepticism  manifest  itself? 

8.  By  what  line   of  reasoning  did  some  avoid  falling  into 

skepticism  ? 

9.  What  formed  the  basis  of  Malachi's  appeals? 

10.  Why  does  Malachi  condemn  mixed  marriages  and  divorce? 

11.  Why  may  the  Book  of  Malachi  be  described  as  "Prophecy 

within  the  Law"  ? 

12.  Explain  Malachi's  high  regard  for  the  law. 

13.  What  does  Malachi  say  concerning  the  relation  of  Jehovah 

to  the  Jews? 

14.  What  led    Malachi   to  emphasize   the   righteousness   of 

Jehovah  ? 

15.  In  what  sense  does  Malachi  teach  the  brotherhood  of  man? 

16.  How   does    Malachi   estimate   the   worship   of  Jehovah 

among  foreign  nation*? 

17.  Outline  the  Messianic  tea<ihing  of  Malachi. 


326  PROPHECY  AND  THE  PROPHETS 

CHAPTER  XIII 

1.  Indicate  some  of  the  dates  suggested  for  the  Book  of  Joel. 

2.  What  is  the  reason  for  this  uncertainty  as  to  the  date  of 

Joel? 

3.  What  is  the  most  probable  date  of  Joel? 

4.  Where  did  Joel  prophesy? 

5.  What  was  the  occasion  of  Joel's  prophecy? 

6.  Indicate  the  principal  divisions  of  the  Book  of  Joel  and 

briefly  state  the  contents  of  each  division, 

7.  What  is  the  day  of  Jehovah? 

8.  What  does  Joel  say  concerning  the  day  of  Jehovah? 

9.  What  does  Joel  teach  concerning  the  outpouring  of  the 

Divine  Spirit? 

10.  Explain  Joel's  spirit  of  exclusiveness. 

1 1 .  What  does  Joel  say  concerning  the  sovereignty  of  Jehovah  ? 

12.  What  was  Joel's  attitude  toward  the  externals  of  religion? 

CHAPTER  XIV 

1.  JONAH 

1.  Who  is  the  hero  of  the  Book  of  Jonah? 

2.  Outline  the  experiences  of  Jonah  as  narrated  in  the  Book 

of  Jonah. 

3.  How  does  the  Book  of  Jonah  differ  from  other  prophetic 

books  ? 

4.  What  is  the  purpose  and  aim  of  the  book? 

5.  What  is  the  central  truth  taught  in  the  book? 

6.  Outline  in  detail  the  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  book. 

7.  When  was  the  Book  of  Jonah  written? 

2.  DANIEL 

1.  To  which  division  of  the  Hebrew  canon  does  the  Book  of 

Daniel  belong? 

2.  Indicate  some  of  the  suggestions  made  to  account  for  this 

position. 

3.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  Jewish  apocalyptic 

literature? 

4.  When  and  by  whom  was  the  Book  of    Daniel  written 

according  to  the  traditional  view? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  327 

5.  When  ana  under  what  circumstances  was  it  written  accord- 

ing to  the  modem  view? 

6.  How   do   those   who   accept   the   later   date   explain   the 

ascription  of  the  book  to  Daniel? 

7.  Narrate  Daniel's  youth  and  education. 

8.  Describe   Nebuchadnezzar's   image   dream   and   state    its 

significance. 

9.  Narrate  the  events  leading  to  the  deliverance  of  Daniel's 

companions  from  the  fiery  furnace. 

10.  Describe  Nebuchadnezzar's  tree  dream  and  its  fulfillment. 

11.  Narrate  the  feast  of  Belshazzar  and  the  events  connected 

with  it. 

12.  Why  was  Daniel  cast  into  the  lions'  den? 

13.  Describe  Daniel's  vision  of  the  four  beasts  and  state  its 

interpretation. 

14.  Describe  the  vision  of  the  ram  and  the  he-goat  and  state 

its  significance. 

15.  What  reply  did  Daniel  receive  to  his  prayer  for  a  return 

of  the  divine  favor? 

16.  Briefly  indicate  the  contents  of  the  last  vision  of  Daniel. 

17.  What  is  the  design  and  purpose  of  the  Book  of  Daniel? 

18.  Wherein  does  Daniel's  conception  of  the  ultimate  triumph 

of  the  kingdom  of  God  differ  from  that  of  earlier 
prophets  ? 

19.  Wherein  does  the  angelology  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  mark  an 

advance  over  earlier  teaching? 

20.  What  is  the  general  Old  Testament  conception  of  life  after 

death? 

21.  What  contributions  does  the  Book  of  Daniel  make  to  the 

doctrine  of  a  resurrection  from  the  dead? 

22.  Indicate  some  limitations  in  the  teaching  of  the  Book  of 

Daniel  concerning  this  point. 

23.  What  is  the  place  of  prophecy  in  the  working  out  of  the 

redemptive  purpose  of  God? 


INDEX 


Amos,  35-51;  person  and  life, 
38-42;  conditions  of  age,  35- 
38;  message,  43-47;  teaching, 

47-51- 
Angels,  363,  310,  311. 
Apocalyptic  literature,  399-303. 
Assyria,  fall  of,  129,  130. 

B 
Bible,  definition,  9:  etymology 

of  word,  9. 

C 

Chaldean  empire,  rise,  130;  su- 
premacy in  Judah,  126,  127; 
fall,  222,  223. 


Faith,  110,  180,  181. 
False  prophets,  27. 

H 

Habakkuk,  175-181;  peculiar- 
ity* 175;  message,  176-179; 
teaching,  179-181;  prophet  of 
faith,  779. 

Haggai,  246-255;  date  and  con- 
ditions, 246-249;  message, 
250-253;  teaching,  253-255. 

Historical  literature,  16,  17. 

Hosea,  52-72;  conditions,  52- 
55;  marriage,  56;  person  and 
life,  55-57;  message,  57-65; 
teaching,  66-72. 


Daniel.  298-312;  literary  form, 
298-302;  date,  300,  301;  con- 
tents of  book,  302-308;  teach- 
ing, 308-312. 

Dates  of  literary  prophets,  29, 30. 

Day  of  Jehovah,  167,  290. 

Devotional  literature,  15,  16. 


Egypt,  supremacy  in  Judah, 
126. 

Elijah  and  Elisha,  29. 

Exile,  186-189;  return  from, 
246,  247- 

Ezckiel,  186-221;  life  and  per- 
son, 189-194;  message,  194- 
2ix;  teaching,  211-221;  sig- 
nificance, 211;  emphasis  of 
externals,  220,  221. 


Isaiah,  73-115;  conditions,  73- 
77;  person  and  life,  77-80; 
message,  80-101;  vision,  85, 
86,  103,  104;  work  and 
teaching,  101-115;  religious 
teacher,  104-106;  social  re- 
former, 107,  108;  statesman, 
io8-ii2. 

Isaiah,  chapters  40-66,  222-245; 
contents,  225-235;  historical 
background  and  date,  223- 
225;  teaching,  235-245- 

Israel,  the  servant  of  Jehovah, 
829-231,  236,  241-244. 


Jeboiakim,    religious    reaction, 


329 


33° 


INDEX 


Jehovah,  nature  and  character, 
48,  49.  66,  67,  123,  173,  236- 
241;  fatherhood,  284;  glory, 
217,  240,  241;  hoUness,  101— 
103,  173,  218,  240;  love,  67, 
296;  majesty,  102,  105,  180, 
237,  238,  270,  292;  name,  217; 
righteousness,  49,  66,  239, 
240,  264,  284;  sole  deity,  236, 

237- 

Jeremiah,  125-162;  conditions, 
125-135;  life  and  character, 
135-140;  message,  140-154; 
teaching,  154-162. 

Joel,  286-292;  date,  286,  287; 
exclusiveness,  291;  message, 
287-290;  teaching,  290-292. 

Jonah,  293-298;  contents  of 
book,  294,  295;  date,  298;  in- 
terpretation, 297,  298;  teach- 
ing, 295-297. 

Josiah,  reforms  of,  132. 


Law,  283. 


M 


Malachi,  272-285;  name,  272; 
character,  272,  273;  con- 
ditions and  date,  273-279; 
message,  379-282;  teaching, 
282-285. 

Manasseh,  religious  reaction, 
130. 

Messianic  age,  51,  69-71,  112, 
157-160,    214-217,    244.    245. 

309.  310- 
Messianic  king,  71,  113-115,  124, 

159,    214,    270,    271;    Zerub- 

babel,  254,  263. 
Micah,     1 16-124;     Isaiah     and 

Micah,   116;  person  and  life, 


116-118;    message,    118-123; 
teaching,  123,  124. 
Moses,  the  first  prophet,  25. 

N 
Nahum,   168-174;  life  and  per- 
son,   168-170;  messagei    170- 
172;  teaching,  173,  174. 


Obadiah,  181-185;  message,  184; 
purpose,  185;  teaching,  185. 

Old  Testament,  canon,  1 1 ;  con- 
tents, 10,  11;  differences  be- 
tween English  and  Hebrew, 
lo;  various  kinds  of  litera- 
ture, 14-17. 


Priestly  literature,  i6. 

Prophecy,  basis  and  origin,  18, 
19;  primitive  methods,  19-22; 
among  the  Hebrews,  begin- 
ning, 25;  history,  25-30;  pe- 
culiarities, 22. 

Prophet,  etymology  of  word,  22 ; 
titles,  23;  twofold  activity, 
24;  dates,  29,  30;  survey  of 
teaching  and  activity,  30-33; 
false,  2  7 ;  prophets  and  Jesus, 
33'  34.  312,  313. 

Prophetic  literature,  14. 


Regeneration,  314. 
Remnant,  112,  158. 
Repentance,  70,  212. 
Responsibility,  individual,   161, 

162,  219. 
Resiirrection,  311,  312. 
Revelation,  methods  of,  13,  13. 


INDEX 


331 


Samuel,  26. 

Scythians,  129. 

Servant    of    Jehovah,    329-231, 

236,  241-244- 
Skepticism,  248,  276,  281,  282. 
Sons  of  prophets,  26. 
Spirit,  outpouring  of,  290,  291. 
Spirituality  of  religion,  i6o. 


Temple,  unique  place  of,   253- 
255,  262,  363. 


W 

Wisdom  literature,  14,  15. 


Zechariah,  246-271;  date  and 
conditions,  246-349;  message, 
255-261,  265-269;  teaching, 
261—265,  269-271. 

Zephaniah,  163-168;  life  and 
person,  163,  164;  message, 
164-166;  teaching,  166- 
168, 


Date  Due 


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